Hostname: page-component-7c8c6479df-xxrs7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-03-29T02:54:47.052Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Triarchic conceptualization of psychopathy: Developmental origins of disinhibition, boldness, and meanness

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 July 2009

Christopher J. Patrick*
Affiliation:
University of Minnesota
Don C. Fowles
Affiliation:
University of Iowa
Robert F. Krueger
Affiliation:
Washington University–St. Louis
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Christopher J. Patrick, Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Elliott Hall, 75 East River Road, Minneapolis, MN 55455. E-mail: cpatrick@umn.edu.

Abstract

The clinical concept of psychopathy (“psychopathic personality”) is generally considered to entail persistent behavioral deviancy in the company of emotional–interpersonal detachment. However, longstanding debates continue regarding the appropriate scope and boundaries of the concept. Here, we review alternative historic descriptions of the disorder together with empirical findings for the best-established assessment instruments in use with adolescents and youth as a basis for formulating an integrative, triarchic model of psychopathy. The essence of the triarchic model is that psychopathy encompasses three distinct phenotypic constructs: disinhibition, which reflects a general propensity toward problems of impulse control; boldness, which is defined as the nexus of social dominance, emotional resiliency, and venturesomeness; and meanness, which is defined as aggressive resource seeking without regard for others (“dysaffliated agency”). These differing phenotypic components are considered in terms of relevant etiologic and developmental pathways. The triarchic conceptualization provides a basis for reconciling and accommodating alternative descriptive accounts of psychopathy, and a framework for coordinating research on neurobiological and developmental processes contributing to varying manifestations of the disorder.

Type
Regular Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Achenbach, T. M., & Edelbrock, C. S. (1978). The classification of child psychopathology: A review and analysis of empirical efforts. Psychological Bulletin, 85, 12751301.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text revision). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Andershed, H., Kerr, M., Stattin, H., & Levander, S. (2002). Psychopathic traits in non-referred youths: A new assessment tool. In Blau, E. & Sheridan, L. (Eds.), Psychopaths: Current international perspectives (pp. 131158). Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Andershed, H., Hodgins, S., & Tengstrom, A. (2007). Convergent validity of the Youth Psychopathic Traits Inventory (YPI): Association with the Psychopathy Checklist: Youth version. Assessment, 14, 144154.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arieti, S. (1963). Psychopathic personality: Some views on its psychopathology and psychodynamics. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 4, 301312.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arieti, S. (1967). The intrapsychic self: Feeling, cognition, and creativity in health and mental illness. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Benning, S. D., Patrick, C. J., Blonigen, D. M., Hicks, B. M., & Iacono, W. G. (2005). Estimating facets of psychopathy from normal personality traits: A step toward community–epidemiological investigations. Assessment, 12, 318.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benning, S. D., Patrick, C. J., Hicks, B. M., Blonigen, D. M., & Krueger, R. F. (2003). Factor structure of the Psychopathic Personality Inventory: Validity and implications for clinical assessment. Psychological Assessment, 15, 340350.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benning, S. D., Patrick, C. J., Salekin, R. T., & Leistico, A. R. (2005). Convergent and discriminant validity of psychopathy factors assessed via self-report: A comparison of three instruments. Assessment, 12, 270289.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blackburn, R. (2006). Other theoretical models of psychopathy. In Patrick, C. J. (Ed.), Handbook of psychopathy (pp. 3557). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Blair, R. J. R. (2006). Subcortical brain systems in psychopathy: The amygdala and associated structures. In Patrick, C. J. (Ed.), Handbook of psychopathy (pp. 296312). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Block, J. H., & Block, J. (1980). The role of ego-control and ego resiliency in the organization of behavior. In Collins, W. A. (Ed.), The Minnesota symposium on child psychology: Vol. 13. Development of cognition, affect, and social relations (pp. 39101). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Blonigen, D., Hicks, B., Patrick, C., Krueger, R., Iacono, W., & McGue, M. (2005). Psychopathic personality traits: Heritability and genetic overlap with internalizing and externalizing pathology. Psychological Medicine, 35, 637648.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, S. B. (1998). Developmental perspectives. In Ollendick, T. H. & Hersen, M. (Eds.), Handbook of child psychopathology (3rd ed., pp. 335). New York: Plenum Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (1996). Equifinality and multifinality in developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 597600.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cleckley, H. (1941). The mask of sanity (1st ed.). St. Louis, MO: Mosby.Google Scholar
Cleckley, H. (1976). The mask of sanity (5th ed.). St. Louis, MO: Mosby.Google Scholar
Cole, P. M., & Hall, S. E. (2008). Emotion dysregulation as a risk factor for psychopathology. In Beauchaine, T. P. & Hinshaw, S. P. (Eds.), Child and adolescent psychopathology (pp. 265298). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Cooke, D. J., & Michie, C. (2001). Refining the construct of psychopathy: Towards a hierarchical model. Psychological Assessment, 13, 171188.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cooke, D. J., Michie, C., & Hart, S. D. (2006). Facets of psychopathy: Toward clearer measurement. In Patrick, C. J. (Ed.), Handbook of psychopathy (pp. 91106). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Craft, M. (1966). Conclusions. In Craft, M. (Ed.), Psychopathic disorders and their assessment (pp. 206226). New York: Pergamon Press.Google Scholar
Dishion, T. J., French, D. C., & Patterson, G. R. (1995). The development and ecology of antisocial behavior. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 2. Risk, disorder, and adaptation (pp. 421471). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Douglas, K. S., Lilienfeld, S. O., Skeem, J. L., Poythress, N. G., Edens, J. F., & Patrick, C. J. (2008). Relation of antisocial and psychopathic traits to suicide-related behavior among offenders. Law and Human Behavior, 32, 511525.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farrington, D. P., Coid, J. W., Harnett, L., Joliffe, D., Soteriou, N., Turner, R., & West, D. J. (2006). Criminal careers up to age 50 and life success up to age 48: New findings from The Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development (Home Office Research Study No. 299). London: Home Office.Google Scholar
Forth, A. E., Brown, S. L., Hart, S. D., & Hare, R. D. (1996). The assessment of psychopathy in male and female noncriminals: Reliability and validity. Personality and Individual Differences, 20, 531543.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Forth, A. E., Kosson, D. S., & Hare, R. D. (2003). The Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version manual (2nd ed.). Toronto: Multi-Health Systems. (Original work published 1996)Google Scholar
Fowles, D. C. (1980). The three arousal model: Implications of Gray's two-factor learning theory for heart rate, electrodermal activity, and psychopathy. Psychophysiology, 17, 87104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fowles, D. C., & Dindo, L. (2006). A dual deficit model of psychopathy. In Patrick, C. J. (Ed.), Handbook of psychopathy (pp. 1434). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Frick, P. J., Boden, D. S., & Barry, C. T. (2000). Psychopathic traits and conduct problems in community and clinic-referred samples of children: Further development of the Psychopathy Screening Device. Psychological Assessment, 12, 382393.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frick, P. J., & Dickens, C. (2006). Current perspectives on conduct disorder. Current Psychiatry Reports, 8, 5972.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frick, P. J., & Hare, R. D. (2001). Antisocial Process Screening Device. Toronto: Multi-Health Systems.Google Scholar
Frick, P. J., O'Brien, B. S., Wooten, J. M., & McBurnett, K. (1994). Psychopathy and conduct problems in children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 700707.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frick, P. J., & Marsee, M. A. (2006). Psychopathy and developmental pathways to antisocial behavior in youth. In Patrick, C. J. (Ed.), Handbook of psychopathy (pp. 353374). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Frick, P. J., & Morris, A. S. (2004). Temperament and developmental pathways to conduct problems. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 5468.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frick, P. J., Stickle, T. R., Dandreaux, D. M., Farrell, J. M., & Kimonis, E. R. (2005). Callous–unemotional traits in predicting the severity and stability of conduct problems and delinquency. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33, 471487.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frick, P. J., & White, S. F. (2008). The importance of callous–unemotional traits for developmental models of aggressive and antisocial behavior. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 359375.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gorenstein, E. E., & Newman, J. P. (1980). Disinhibitory psychopathology: A new perspective and a model for research. Psychological Review, 87, 301315.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hall, J. R., & Benning, S. D. (2006). The “successful” psychopath: Adaptive and subclinical manifestations of psychopathy in the general population. In Patrick, C. J. (Ed.), Handbook of psychopathy (pp. 459478). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Hall, J., Benning, S. D., & Patrick, C. J. (2004). Criterion-related validity of the three-factor model of psychopathy: Personality, behavior, and adaptive functioning. Assessment, 11, 416.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hare, R. D. (1978). Electrodermal and cardiovascular correlates of psychopathy. In Hare, R. D. & Schalling, D. (Eds.), Psychopathic behavior: Approaches to research (pp. 107143). Chichester: Wiley.Google Scholar
Hare, R. D. (1980). A research scale for the assessment of psychopathy in criminal populations. Personality and Individual Differences, 1, 111119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hare, R. D. (1991). The Hare Psychopathy Checklist—Revised. Toronto: Multi-Health Systems.Google Scholar
Hare, R. D. (2003). The Hare Psychopathy Checklist—Revised (2nd ed.). Toronto: Multi-Health Systems.Google Scholar
Hare, R. D., Harpur, T. J., Hakstian, A. R., Forth, A. E., Hart, S. D., & Newman, J. P. (1990). The Revised Psychopathy Checklist: Reliability and factor structure. Psychological Assessment, 2, 338341.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hare, R. D., & Neumann, C. S. (2006). The PCL-R assessment of psychopathy: Development, structural properties, and new directions. In Patrick, C. J. (Ed.), Handbook of psychopathy (pp. 5888). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Harpur, T. J., Hakstian, A. R., & Hare, R. D. (1988). Factor structure of the Psychopathy Checklist. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 741747.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harpur, T. J., Hare, R. D., & Hakstian, A. R. (1989). Two-factor conceptualization of psychopathy: Construct validity and assessment implications. Psychological Assessment, 1, 617.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hart, S., Cox, D., & Hare, R. D. (1995). Manual for the Psychopathy Checklist: Screening version (PCL:SV). Toronto: Multi-Health Systems.Google Scholar
Hicks, B. M., Markon, K. E., Patrick, C. J., Krueger, R. F., & Newman, J. P. (2004). Identifying psychopathy subtypes on the basis of personality structure. Psychological Assessment, 16, 276288.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hicks, B. M., & Patrick, C. J. (2006). Psychopathy and negative affectivity: Analyses of suppressor effects reveal distinct relations with trait anxiety, depression, fearfulness, and anger-hostility. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 276287.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hinshaw, S. P. (2008). Emotion dysregulation as a risk factor for psychopathology. In Beauchaine, T. P. & Hinshaw, S. P. (Eds.), Child and adolescent psychopathology (pp. 326). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Horney, K. (1945). Our inner conflicts. New York: W. W. Norton.Google Scholar
Ishikawa, S. S., Raine, A., Lencz, T., Bihrle, S., & Lacasse, L. (2001). Autonomic stress reactivity and executive functions in successful and unsuccessful criminal psychopaths from the community. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 423432.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karpman, B. (1941). On the need for separating psychopathy into two distinct clinical types: Symptomatic and idiopathic. Journal of Criminology and Psychopathology, 3, 112137.Google Scholar
Kagan, J. (1994). Galen's prophecy: Temperament in human nature. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Kagan, J., & Snidman, N. (1999). Early childhood predictors of adult anxiety disorders. Biological Psychiatry, 46, 15361541.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kobasa, C. S. (1979). Stressful life events, personality, and health: An inquiry into hardiness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 111.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kochanska, G. (1993). Toward a synthesis of parental socialization and child temperament in early development of conscience. Child Development, 64, 325347.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kochanska, G. (1995). Children's temperament, mothers' discipline, and security of attachment: Multiple pathways to emerging internalization. Child Development, 66, 597615.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kochanska, G. K. (1997). Multiple pathways to conscience for children with different temperaments: From toddlerhood to age 5. Developmental Psychology, 33, 228240.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kochanska, G. K., Gross, J. N., Lin, M. H., & Nichols, K. E. (2002). Guilt in young children: Development, determinants, and relations with a broader system of standards. Child Development, 73, 461482.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kochanska, G., Murray, K., & Coy, K. C. (1997). Inhibitory control as a contributor to conscience in childhood: From toddler to early school age. Child Development, 68, 263267.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kraepelin, E. (1904). Psychiatrie: Ein lehrbuch (7th ed.). Leipzig: Barth.Google Scholar
Kraepelin, E. (1915). Psychiatrie: Ein lehrbuch (8th ed.). Leipzig: Barth.Google Scholar
Krueger, R. F. (1999a). Personality traits in late adolescence predict mental disorders in early adulthood: A prospective–epidemiological study. Journal of Personality, 67, 3965.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krueger, R. F. (1999b). The structure of common mental disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56, 921926.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krueger, R. F., Hicks, B., Patrick, C. J., Carlson, S., Iacono, W. G., & McGue, M. (2002). Etiologic connections among substance dependence, antisocial behavior, and personality: Modeling the externalizing spectrum. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 411424.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krueger, R. F., Markon, K. E., Patrick, C. J., Benning, S. D., & Kramer, M. (2007). Linking antisocial behavior, substance use, and personality: An integrative quantitative model of the adult externalizing spectrum. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 645666.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leary, T. (1957). Interpersonal diagnosis of personality. New York: Ronald Press.Google Scholar
Lilienfeld, S. O., & Andrews, B. P. (1996). Development and preliminary validation of a self report measure of psychopathic personality traits in noncriminal populations. Journal of Personality Assessment, 66, 488524.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lilienfeld, S. O., & Fowler, K. A. (2006). The self-report assessment of psychopathy: Problems, pitfalls, and promises. In Patrick, C. J. (Ed.), Handbook of psychopathy (pp. 107132). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Lilienfeld, S. O., & Widows, M. R. (2005). Psychopathic Personality Inventory—Revised (PPI-R) professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.Google Scholar
Lindner, R. M. (1944). Rebel without a cause: The story of a criminal psychopath. New York: Grune & Stratton.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loney, B. R., Frick, P. J., Clements, C. B., Ellis, M. L., & Kerlin, K. (2003). Callous–unemotional traits, impulsivity, and emotional processing in antisocial adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 6680.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lykken, D. T. (1957). A study of anxiety in the sociopathic personality. Journal of Abnormal and Clinical Psychology, 55, 610.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lykken, D. T. (1995). The antisocial personalities. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Lynam, D. R. (1997). Pursuing the psychopath: Capturing the fledgling psychopath in a nomological net. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 425438.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lynam, D. R. (1998). Early identification of the fledgling psychopath: Locating the psychopathic child in the current nomenclature. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 566575.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lynam, D. R., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Raine, A., Loeber, R., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (2005). Adolescent psychopathy and the Big Five: Results from two samples. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33, 431444.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lynam, D. R., & Derefinko, K. J. (2006). Psychopathy and personality. In Patrick, C. J. (Ed.), Handbook of psychopathy (pp. 133155). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Marsh, A. A., Finger, E. C., Mitchell, G. V., Reid, M. E., Sims, C., Kosson, D. S., et al. (2008). Reduced amygdala response to fearful expressions in children and adolescents with callous–unemotional traits and disruptive behavior disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 712720.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maudsley, H. (1874). Responsibility in mental disease. London: King Publishers.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCord, W., & McCord, J. (1964). The psychopath: An essay on the criminal mind. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand.Google Scholar
Miller, J. D., Lynam, D. R., Widiger, T. A., & Leukefeld, C. (2001). Personality disorders as extreme variants of common personality dimensions: Can the five-factor model adequately represent psychopathy? Journal of Personality, 69, 253276.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moffitt, T. E. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674701.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moffitt, T. E., & Lynam, D. Jr. (1994). The neuropsychology of conduct disorder and delinquency: Implications for understanding antisocial behavior. In Fowles, D., Sutker, P., & Goodman, S. (Eds.), Progress in experimental personality and psychopathology research 1994. Special focus on psychopathy and antisocial behavior: A developmental perspective (pp. 233262). New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Partridge, G. E. (1928a). A study of 50 cases of psychopathic personality. American Journal of Psychiatry, 7, 953973.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Partridge, G. E. (1928b). Psychopathic personalities among boys in a training school for delinquents. American Journal of Psychiatry, 8, 159186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patrick, C. J. (1994). Emotion and psychopathy: Startling new insights. Psychophysiology, 31, 319330.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patrick, C. J. (2006). Back to the future: Cleckley as a guide to the next generation of psychopathy research. In Patrick, C. J. (Ed.), Handbook of psychopathy (pp. 605617). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Patrick, C. J. (2007). Getting to the heart of psychopathy. In Herve, H. & Yuille, J. C. (Eds.), Psychopathy: Theory, research, and social implications (pp. 207252). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Patrick, C. J., & Bernat, E. (2009). From markers to mechanisms: Using psychophysiological measures to elucidate basic processes underlying aggressive externalizing behavior. In Hodgins, S., Viding, E., & Plodowski, A. (Eds.), Persistent violent offenders: Neurobiology and rehabilitation (pp. 223250). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Patrick, C. J., & Bernat, E. (in press). Neurobiology of psychopathy: A two-process theory. In Berntson, G. G. & Cacioppo, J. T. (Eds.), Handbook of neuroscience for the behavioral sciences. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Patrick, C. J., & Bernat, E. (2006). The construct of emotion as a bridge between personality and psychopathology. In Krueger, R. F. & Tackett, J. (Eds.), Personality and psychopathology (pp. 174209). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Patrick, C. J., Bradley, M. M., & Lang, P. J. (1993). Emotion in the criminal psychopath: Startle reflex modulation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 8292.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patrick, C. J., Edens, J. F., Poythress, N., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (2006). Construct validity of the PPI two-factor model with offenders. Psychological Assessment, 18, 204208.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patrick, C. J., Hicks, B. M., Krueger, R. F., & Lang, A. R. (2005). Relations between psychopathy facets and externalizing in a criminal offender sample. Journal of Personality Disorders, 19, 339356.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patrick, C. J., Hicks, B. M., Nichol, P. E., & Krueger, R. F. (2007). A bifactor approach to modeling the structure of the Psychopathy Checklist—Revised. Journal of Personality Disorders, 21, 118141.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patrick, C. J., & Zempolich, K. A. (1998). Emotion and aggression in the psychopathic personality. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 3, 303338.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patterson, G. R., Reid, J. B., & Dishion, T. J. (1992). Antisocial boys. Eugene, OR: Castalia.Google Scholar
Patterson, G. R., Reid, J. B., & Eddy, J. M. (2002). A brief history of the Oregon model. In Reid, J. B., Patterson, G. R., & Snyder, J. (Eds.), Antisocial behavior in children and adolescents: A developmental analysis and model for intervention. (pp. 321). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Patterson, G. R., DeGarmo, D. S., & Knutson, N. (2000). Hyperactive and antisocial behaviors: Comorbid or two points in the same process. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 91106.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pinel, P. (1962). A treatise on insanity (Davis, D., Trans.). New York: Hafner. (Original work published 1806)Google Scholar
Porter, S., & Woodworth, M. (2006). Psychopathy and aggression. In Patrick, C. J. (Ed.), Handbook of psychopathy (pp. 481494). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Poythress, N. G., Edens, J. F., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (1998). Criterion-related validity of the Psychopathic Personality Inventory in a prison sample. Psychological Assessment, 10, 426430.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poythress, N. G., Dembo, R., Wareham, J., & Greenbaum, P. E. (2006). Construct validity of the Youth Psychopathic Traits Inventory (YPI) and the Antisocial Process Screening Device (APSD) with justice-involved adolescents. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 33, 2655.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prichard, J. C. (1835). A treatise on insanity and other disorders affecting the mind. London: Sherwood, Gilbert & Piper.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quay, H. C. (1964). Dimensions of personality in delinquent boys as inferred from the factor analysis of case history data. Child Development, 35, 479484.Google ScholarPubMed
Quay, H. C. (1986). Classification. In Quay, H. C. & Werry, J. S. (Eds.), Psychopathological disorders of childhood (3rd ed., pp. 142). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Raine, A., Ishikawa, S. S., Arce, E., Lencz, T., Knuth, K. H., Bihrle, S., et al. (2004). Hippocampal structural asymmetry in unsuccessful psychopaths. Biological Psychiatry, 55, 185191.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robins, L. N. (1966). Deviant children grown up. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins.Google Scholar
Robins, L. N. (1978). Sturdy predictors of adult antisocial behaviour: Replications from longitudinal studies. Psychological Medicine, 8, 611622.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ross, S. R., Benning, S. D., Patrick, C. J., Thompson, A., & Thurston, A. (2009). Factors of the Psychopathic Personality Inventory: Criterion-related validity and relationship to the BIS/BAS and Five-Factor models of personality. Assessment, 16, 7187.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rush, B. (1812). Medical inquiries and observations upon the diseases of the mind. Philadelphia, PA: Kimber & Richardson.Google Scholar
Rutter, M. (2006). Genes and behavior: Nature–nurture interplay explained. Malden, MA: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Salekin, R. T. (2006). Psychopathy in children and adolescents: Key issues in conceptualization and assessment. In Patrick, C. J. (Ed.), Handbook of psychopathy (pp. 389414). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Saucier, G. (1992). Benchmarks: Integrating affective and interpersonal circles with the Big-Five personality factors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 10251035.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schneider, K. (1934). Die psychopathischen personlichkeiten (3rd ed.). Vienna: Deuticke.Google Scholar
Sher, K. J., & Trull, T. (1994). Personality and disinhibitory psychopathology: Alcoholism and antisocial personality disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 92102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skeem, J. L., & Cooke, D. J. (in press). Is antisocial behavior essential to psychopathy? Conceptual directions for resolving the debate. Psychological Assessment.Google Scholar
Skeem, J. L., Johansson, P., Andershed, H., Kerr, M., & Eno Louden, J. (2007). Two subtypes of psychopathic violent offenders that parallel primary and secondary variants. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 395409.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skeem, J. L., Miller, J. D., Mulvey, E. P., Tiemann, J., & Monahan, J. (2005) Using a five-factor lens to explore the relation between personality traits and violence in psychiatric patients. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 454465.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skeem, J. L., Mulvey, E. P., & Grisso, T. (2003). Applicability of traditional and revised models of psychopathy to the Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version. Psychological Assessment, 15, 4155.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, S. S., & Newman, J. P. (1990). Alcohol and drug abuse-dependence disorders in psychopathic and nonpsychopathic criminal offenders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 99, 430439.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Snyder, J., Reid, J., & Patterson, G. (2003). A social learning model of child and adolescent antisocial behavior. In Lahey, B. B., Moffitt, T. E., & Caspi, A. (Eds.), Causes of conduct disorder and juvenile delinquency (pp. 2748). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Thompson, R. A. (2001). Childhood anxiety disorders from the perspective of emotion regulation and attachment. In Vasey, M. W. & Dadds, M. R. (Eds.), The developmental psychopathology of anxiety (pp. 160182). New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vanman, E. J., Mejia, V. Y., Dawson, M. E., Schell, A. M., & Raine, A. (2003). Modification of the startle reflex in a community sample: Do one or two dimensions of psychopathy underlie emotional processing? Personality and Individual Differences, 35, 20072021.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verona, E., Hicks, B. M., & Patrick, C. J. (2005). Psychopathy and suicidality in female offenders: Mediating effects of temperament and abuse history. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 10651073.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verona, E., & Patrick, C. J. (2000). Suicide risk in externalizing syndromes: Temperamental and neurobiological underpinnings. In Joiner, T. E. (Ed.), Suicide science: Expanding the boundaries, pp. 137173. Boston: Kluwer Academic.Google Scholar
Verona, E., Patrick, C. J., & Joiner, T. E. (2001). Psychopathy, antisocial personality, and suicide risk. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 462470.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Verona, E., Sachs-Ericsson, N., & Joiner, T. E. (2004). Suicide attempts associated with externalizing psychopathology in an epidemiological sample. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 444451.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Widiger, T. A. (2006). Psychopathy and DSM-IV psychopathology. In Patrick, C. J. (Ed.), Handbook of psychopathy (pp. 156171). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Widiger, T. A., Cadoret, R., Hare, R., Robins, L., Rutherford, M., Zanarini, M., et al. (1996). DSM-IV antisocial personality disorder field trial. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105, 316.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Widom, C. S. (1977). A methodology for studying noninstitutionalized psychopaths. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 45, 674683.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wiggins, J. S. (1982). Circumplex models of interpersonal behavior in clinical psychology. In Kendall, P. C. & Butcher, J. N. (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in clinical psychology (pp. 183221). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Young, S. E., Stallings, M. C., Corley, R. P., Krauter, K. S., & Hewitt, J. K. (2000). Genetic and environmental influences on behavioral disinhibition. American Journal of Medical Genetics (Neuropsychiatric Genetics), 96, 684695.3.0.CO;2-G>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zuckerman, M. (1979). Sensation seeking: Beyond the optimal level of arousal. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar