This chapter describes the development of prosocial motives and the social contexts within which these motives emerge and differentiate. Initially, prosocial behavior is based on a blend of motives, namely, participating in social interaction and early forms of feeling for others. During early childhood, concern-based guilt emerges and mere participation transforms into contributing to collaborative activities. During childhood, the normative turn complements these motives by a sense of obligation (living up to), and, during adolescence, aspiring to one’s ideal self can become an important prosocial motive. In this sense, doing good often is an expression of central human motives, namely, belonging to others, feeling for others, contributing to joint endeavors, affirming a sense of responsibility and normative obligation, and striving for our ideal selves.

High-quality data are necessary for drawing valid research conclusions, yet errors can occur during data collection and processing. These errors can compromise the validity and generalizability of findings. To achieve high data quality, one must approach data collection and management anticipating the errors that can occur and establishing procedures to address errors. This chapter presents best practices for data cleaning to minimize errors during data collection and to identify and address errors in the resulting data sets. Data cleaning begins during the early stages of study design, when data quality procedures are set in place. During data collection, the focus is on preventing errors. When entering, managing, and analyzing data, it is important to be vigilant in identifying and reconciling errors. During manuscript development, reporting, and presentation of results, all data cleaning steps taken should be documented and reported. With these steps, we can ensure the validity, reliability, and representative nature of the results of our research.

Collaborating on a scientific endeavor can take extra time, work, and intention to ensure that the collaboration is fruitful. However, it also comes with many benefits, such as the building of professional relationships. There are several best practices that can help increase the likelihood that a collaboration will be successful. These include taking time at the beginning of the collaboration to plan how the team will work together. Teams that are characterized by trust, open communication, and shared goals and expectations, among other qualities, are more likely to be successful. Different forms of interdisciplinary research move researchers from a focus on one’s own discipline to increasing integration across other disciplines. Despite the challenges that come with interdisciplinary research, such as navigating differences in discipline-specific practices, such a collaboration can provide the capacity to address scientific problems that are too big for one discipline.

We present an overview of the role, benefits, and drawbacks of theory in scientific research, particularly in the social and behavioral sciences. We discuss what theory is and what it is not. We also focus on some key elements of theory such as its ability to explain phenomena at multiple parallel levels of analysis. Evolutionary theory is offered as an example that illustrates the importance of conceptual integration across different disciplines. We further describe the key characteristics of good theories, such as parsimony, depth, breadth, and coherence (both internal and external), and we encourage the use of “coherence stress-tests” to help refine theory. We then discuss 4 advantages and 10 disadvantages of using theory in social and behavioral science research. Finally, we suggest conceptual tools and provide a list of recommendations for theory-driven research. We hope this chapter will help in the complex pursuit of improving research practices in the social and behavioral sciences.

In this chapter, we review existing literature on the development of prosociality throughout the lifespan by highlighting the different factors/motives underlying individuals’ prosocial actions and their beneficial effects across time. First, we define the concept of prosociality and discuss the main theoretical issues related to its study from a lifespan perspective. Next, we review key empirical findings on prosociality by considering three main developmental phases (infancy and childhood, adolescence and young adulthood, adulthood and older adults) and we underline how an analysis of the main motives/factors operating in each phase can help explain the variability in prosocial development. Based on our review, we also offer some guidelines for the design of intervention actions that are developmentally appropriate and meaningful for the targeted age groups. Finally, we conclude by identifying potential gaps in the literature and we indicate promising directions for future studies.

The research methods we use to assess prosociality in young children are the ultimate arbiter for our understanding of prosocial development. The theoretical conclusions we base on empirical data are nested, if not entirely rooted, in the ways in which we measure and statistically model children’s prosociality. This chapter focuses on early ontogeny and systematizes the landscape of research methodologies currently used to study prosocial development. It offers a critical reflection on some of the methodological and statistical constraints under which current research on prosocial development is being conducted. The chapter closes by arguing that new technological advances have paved the way for a more inclusive and systematic study of prosociality in the early years of development. Embracing these ongoing efforts will require a new kind of discussion about the ways in which we statistically model development and how we draw inferences about “significant” effects in early ontogeny.

Prosocial development is considered foundational for youth civic engagement, yet associations between these two developmental domains is more complex and dynamic than typically recognized. This chapter examines theory and evidence linking prosociality and two main dimensions of civic engagement: civic helping and political engagement. Most research separately examines helping versus political engagement, given that different correlates and developmental processes are often evident. Positive youth development theory posits that adolescents’ caring and connections lead to civic contributions, and evidence lends support for bidirectional associations between civic helping and prosocial competencies. Youth political engagement is not as commonly studied in relation to prosocial development, but empathy combined with critical social analysis may support socially just political attitudes and actions, whereas other political attitudes are rooted in exclusion and inequality and antithetical to prosociality. Implications for theory, future research, and practice are also discussed.

Working in applied settings presents unique challenges and complexities with respect to research. Researchers have often commented on the scientist–practitioner divide, but there is a lack of information about the specific challenges and constraints of doing applied work that may contribute to this divide. As a group of applied social and behavioral scientists, we discuss what individuals should know, understand, and expect regarding the work practitioners conduct in applied settings. We describe the challenges of applied work as they relate to some topics covered earlier in this volume and identify other unique aspects of applied work. We conclude by discussing how an individual can approach deciding whether applied work is a fit with one’s interests.

Broad constructs of positive parenting (e.g., sensitivity, warmth) have been shown to contribute to children’s prosociality across a variety of ages and cultures. However, because both prosociality and parent-child relationships are complex, multifaceted constructs, a more fine-grained analysis is needed in order to understand the different pathways by which parents can facilitate children’s prosocial development. This chapter offers such an analysis, by reviewing work on how distinct features, or domains, of parenting can promote different motivations and skills that support prosocial action. Bidirectional effects and cultural influences are also considered, and implications for research and practice are outlined.

Siblings are often overlooked as a source of social influence. Addressing this gap, we review findings from studies spanning the transition to siblinghood through adolescence. We have identified four features of sibling relationships that help explain siblings’ powerful influence on children’s prosocial behavior: sibling relationships are (1) emotionally unfettered; (2) diagonal, especially in the early years; (3) familiar; and (4) long-lasting. Research is framed by several distinct theoretical perspectives, including attachment theory, ethology, family systems theory, and cognitive accounts of theory of mind development. Sibling influences also take many forms that vary in salience across the different aspects of prosocial behavior and distinct developmental periods. Over time, sibling influences show both stability and change, but appear independent from parental influences – although evidence is scarce for some groups. Finally, we discuss future directions, as well as conclusions regarding the nature, motivation, and impact of sibling influences on prosocial behavior.

The critical role of effortful control (EC) in promoting prosocial development has been consistently supported in correlation studies. Yet it remains unclear whether promoting EC can be an intermediate target through which psychological interventions promote prosocial tendencies in youth. This review focuses on how to translate basic developmental research on family influences on children’s EC into family-focused interventions. First, we review key features of family socialization associated with children’s EC. Second, we conduct a qualitative review of randomized controlled studies of family-focused interventions that have examined EC as an outcome or mediator. We review key components and formats of these interventions and their efficacy in improving EC and related youth outcomes. We also review family-focused interventions for promoting children’s prosocial tendencies. In summary, our review finds some evidence for the efficacy of family-focused interventions in improving children’s EC. Limitations of existing interventions and future directions are also discussed.

We review findings regarding genetic effects on prosociality, while considering the multifaceted nature of this trait. We begin with reviewing quantitative genetic studies, particularly twin studies, which attempt to estimate the overall genetic contributions to prosociality and its components. We also discuss molecular genetic designs, while considering the methodological shift of focus from the study of candidate genes (i.e., specific genes that relate to phenotype) into genome-wide association studies (which study many polymorphisms across the genome). We then address the complex interplay of environmental and genetic effects, and present findings of gene-environment correlations and interactions. Throughout this chapter we also present findings regarding genetic effects in relevant constructs such as the personality trait of agreeableness and empathy, which could suggest underlying motivational mechanisms for prosocial behavior. We then present a developmental perspective on the topic, and conclude with discussing possible implications of this line of research and future directions.

Schooling transforms child development yet fades into the background in research on prosocial behavior. Mass education, however, was central to the concerns of founding theorists such as Durkheim, Dewey, and Piaget. Putting on a sociological lens makes it easier to see how schools continue to play an active role in prosocial development, and how the concerns of these founding researchers resonate today. To situate the active role of school contexts in prosocial behavior, this chapter first examines schools as social systems, structuring children’s social networks, imposing roles and norms of behavior, and impacting the timing of development. The chapter then examines classroom, pedagogical, and peer prosocial behaviors, and their connection to classic theoretical work in the field. After reviewing these forms of prosocial behavior, the chapter closes by examining the links between prosocial behavior and student outcomes and implications and future directions for theory, research, and practice.

This chapter focuses on the role of gender in the development of empathy and prosocial behavior in adolescence. Although it is a commonly held belief and a well-replicated research finding that females report higher empathy and prosocial behavior than do males, much is still unclear about the nature and meaning of this gender difference. After discussing definitions of the constructs, theoretical perspectives on biological, cognitive, and social contributions to gender differences in prosocial development are summarized. Then empirical evidence on gender differences in empathy and in prosocial behavior in adolescence are reviewed, with a particular focus on results of (1) longitudinal studies, (2) studies that take the multidimensionality of empathy and prosocial behavior into account, and (3) multimethod studies. Finally, implications and future directions are discussed.