Originally conceptualised as a pedagogical practice of language alternation in the Welsh/English bilingual classroom, translanguaging has acquired new meanings over the past decades. In this chapter, I highlight the transformations of the term and show how translanguaging research in Canada has pushed it outside bilingual boundaries. Increasing multilingualism in the Canadian context, coupled with calls to decolonise education and empower speakers of minoritised languages, including in Indigenous and immigrant communities, make translanguaging within a bilingual framework no longer viable, nor inclusive. In Canada, translanguaging pedagogy is implemented within an overarching social justice plurilingual framework and has developed new tenets which must be considered in translaguaging research moving forward: disaffiliation of translanguaging from its bilingual origins, embracing multilingualism, and viewing language users as dynamic plurilinguals rather than emergent bilinguals.

This chapter examines multilingual education in Australia, focusing on Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), immersion, and bilingual programmes. It highlights the profound impact of these programmes on individuals, emphasising various purposes around fostering linguistic diversity, intercultural understanding, and cognitive benefits. The chapter explores the diverse implementations across Australian states, with a special focus on the Queensland Model and its unique second language immersion programmes. The chapter underscores the need for effective implementation and support, acknowledging bilingual education’s niche but crucial role in this predominantly English-speaking context.

The fragility of heritage languages (HL) and the challenges immigrant minority learners had in maintaining their home linguistic and cultural assets have been long detected in existing research, calling for more attention toward immigrants’ HL maintenance and education in non-HL-speaking societies. To respond to the call and better understand the status quo of HL preservation, the chapter provides an overview of research developments, pedagogical innovations, and persistent issues salient to heritage language education for K-12 students from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds in both mainstream school settings and out-of-school contexts during the previous decade (2012–2022). The chapter highlights several critical factors that contribute to the prevalent heritage language loss including the ‘officially unilingual’ ideology, the absence of heritage/home languages and cultures in the mainstream curriculum, and the lack of collaboration between mainstream and HL schools and families. The chapter concludes with future directions for researchers, policymakers, and practitioners devoted to HL education and preservation.

Despite the fact that bilingual instruction in the United States of America pre-dates its nationhood, educational policy has undulated its allowance and support for dual language education, marked by both selective preferential treatment of certain (primarily European) languages and through broad opposition to the endeavour as a whole. This brief review of the history and scholarship of dual language education in the USA recaps the ebbs and flows of bilingual education over time and the accompanying shifts in discourses about the purposes and benefits of bilingual education with subsequent implications for how bilingual education is implemented.

Within the timespan of one decade, there have been numerous publications on the viability and educational benefits of translanguaging. In this chapter, I will focus on two publications (Block, 2018 and Jaspers, 2018) that appear to offer conflicting arguments about the shortcomings and perils of pursuing the agenda proposed by translanguaging. That is, whereas Jaspers argues that its ‘transformative’ claim ‘is becoming a dominating rather than a liberating force’, Block argues that the ‘transformative’ agenda advanced by researchers and practitioners of translanguaging does not go far enough to address the systematic and damaging effects of social injustice.

This chapter advocates the translanguaging approach to language education where all languages are valued, and all knowledge that has been acquired through different languages and in different cultural conditions is valued. Translanguaging sees language learning as cultural translation. Learning a new language is about learning a different way of making meaning as well as achieving an understanding of the world around us with people from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. This requires co-learners’ willingness to to adapt and unlearn, to trust and respect each other, and to support each other on a journey of transpositioning.

Since Herdina & Jessner (2002) published the Dynamic Model of Multilingualism(DMM), applying dynamic systems theory to language development research, interestin multilingual development and multilingual awareness has been growing. Thepresent contribution discusses DMM concepts, e.g., complexity and interdependenceof levels and factors, with a special emphasis on multilingual awareness as a keycomponent of multilingual learning. These concepts are then linked to DMM-basedlanguage learning and teaching approaches that focus on language management,language maintenance, and the training of multilingual awareness. Finally, someselected multilingual/plurilingual teaching practices that apply DMM in combinationwith other holistic approaches are presented.

This chapter focuses on the development of trilingual education in the Basque Country where Basque, a minority language, is used along with other languages. Nowadays, Basque is the main language of instruction in pre-primary, primary, and secondary school. Education through the medium of Basque has had an enormous effect on increasing the number of Basque speakers among young people. The increasing importance of English and the diversity of home languages in a multilingual society create the need for changes in language policy and teaching approaches. In this chapter, recent trends to integrate language subjects in the curriculum, the integration of language and content and pedagogical translanguaging are alsodiscussed.

Despite the large number of languages spoken in New Zealand, the country does not have a unified national languages policy. Instead, a wide range of separate policies regulate the status and institutionalisation of different languages, which largely depends on which language communities are acknowledged and supported by the government. This chapter provides an overview of such policies that highlights the historical, political, and ideological complexities and disparities in current provisions to support NZ’s official languages (te reo Māori and NZSL), Pasifika languages, and other community-based heritage languages. We conclude with some remarks on the ongoing need for a comprehensive national legislative framework to enable recognition and educational support for all of NZ’s heritage languages.

This overview aims to promote the consolidation of a relatively new field of research – a child’s language-based agency, integrating early childhood education and language learning and teaching in the early years. The chapter describes child language-based agency research conducted in early childhood education settings. It discusses the following characteristics of a child’s language-based agency: beliefs about languages and their learning, active engagement, and avoidance of engagement patterns of agentic behaviour, children’s social strategies leading to language learning and socialisation, children’s positioning as language experts, and the role of peers in child’s agency enactment.

The models of provision for Irish-medium education are examined in this chapter commencing with an overview of the historical context followed by a description of the sociolinguistic background in Ireland. The immersion education models in other jurisdictions with similar sociolinguistic factors to Ireland are then presented. A common feature of these jurisdictions is that students have limited contact with the target language outside the school setting. The efficacy of immersion centres versus immersion streams or tracks is then compared. An account of different models of Irish-medium education is presented in light of this comparison.

This chapter reports on a multi-institutional research programme, with researchers from Australia, Hong Kong, Singapore, Sweden, and the Philippines, investigating English Medium Instruction (EMI) in Asian higher education. In this chapter, we present the findings of empirical research conducted in Cambodia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Singapore, and South Korea, as well as a discussion of the historical contexts and complexities influencing EMI in such contexts. The case studies presented in this chapter provide for the comparison of research results across and between diverse Asian settings, with reference to such issues as the linguistic backgrounds of students, and their experiences of EMI, including language attitudes, communicative practices, language mixing, and perceived difficulties. One interesting pattern in our findings relates to the obvious differences between Outer Circle (‘English as a second language’) and Expanding Circle (‘English as a foreign language’) contexts in the Asian region.

Grammatical theories about bilingual codeswitching aim to define cognitively represented mechanisms which regulate language mixing for bilingual speakers, illuminating grammatical theory as it relates specifically to bilinguals. A related term, translanguaging, similarly denotes language mixing, or dynamic language use, but is often understood to include the deconstructivist supposition that bilingualism itself is a fiction. This chapter reviews the contributions of codeswitching research to the theory of bilingual grammar, supporting the Integrated Multilingual Model (IMM) of bilingualism. The IMM is consistent with a multilingual approach to translanguaging, which rejects deconstructivism and affirms individual multilingualism as socially significant and psychologically real.

This chapter begins with a historical overview of the development of languages in some Latin American countries, in particular, Colombia, Brazil, and Mexico, and focuses on developments in bi- and multilingual education for speakers of majority and minoritised languages in the region. Followed by a discussion about policies and the development of bilingual education for these two groups, there is then a consideration of certain key issues such as globalisation, power relations, ideologies, and native speakerism. The chapter ends with arguments for implementing an integrated model of bi/multilingual education for both majority and minoritised language students.

This chapter gives an overview of (heritage) language education (HLE) in Australia that problematises the boundary between what are traditionally thought of as ‘heritage languages’ and First Nations language on the one hand and Modern Foreign Languages on the other. It begins with an overview of contemporary multilingualism in Australia, and the different groups of learners typically seen in HLE programmes. This gives the reader a sense of the audience for language education programmes and the different take-up rates seen across different communities. Australia has been a global leader in the integration of HLE into the mainstream school curriculum, and in the third section I present the major approaches and policies that have driven this development, as well as key figures on the size and scope of these, programmes – spanning programmes in mainstream schools, government-run after-hours classes and the community sector. The chapter concludes with reflections on what these experiences tell us about successful programme design and the challenges programmes need to address going forward.