This chapter addresses pronunciation in second language (L2) learning, which ranges from phoneme-level pronunciation to conversation training. First, the definition of phonemes and their relationship with articulation are explained. Vowels and consonants are classified according to different dimensions. The concept of distinctive features is also described. These provide a basis to model and identify phoneme-level pronunciation errors. Suprasegmental features such as stress and rhythm are also addressed. Next, speech analysis methods are described. While formant analysis is effective for diagnosing the pronunciation of vowels, articulatory attribute detection is explored for comprehensive analysis of all phonemes. The chapter then introduces automatic speech recognition (ASR) technology to detect pronunciation errors. Settings of minimal pairs of words, prompted text, and free input can be designed. ASR models are also used for pronunciation grading. The goodness of pronunciation (GOP) score is computed for each phoneme and aggregated over all phonemes in the utterance. Nonnative speech modeling is crucial for effective L2 pronunciation learning.

Learner training is essential for the realization of the potentials of CALL. It can not only safeguard the smooth implementation of CALL activities and facilitate the concomitant learning, but also enhance learners’ active and effective engagement with technological resources for language learning on their own in the informal learning contexts. This chapter gives an overview of how it is conceptualized and operationalized in existing literature. It argues for greater research attention to learner training in and for informal language learning in technological spaces and in-depth exploration into the intersection of contextual factors and learner training. It further advocates more differentiated and personalized approaches to learner training.

The way in which listening in a second language has been taught and learned has changed dramatically as a result of advances in technology. The evolution of technology over the past several decades has meant that learners have a broad range of authentic materials that can supplement their learning experiences. This chapter briefly explores how technology has altered the ways in which learners listen to the target language, and it goes on to show that these technologies also make it possible to enhance the input through the addition of textual cues or through altering the speed to assist them with comprehension. Along with these changes, the chapter points out the need for training to be able to use the range of technological functions in a way that can support their learning, as well as to make use of various help options and feedback that the technology makes available to them. The chapter goes on to explore the pedagogical and technological perspectives of current research and practice, and then concludes with recommendations for research and practice that can allow teachers and researchers to make the most of the affordances that technology provides them both now and in the future.

MOOCs for language learning offer opportunities for communication to help develop learners’ productive skills in the target language, but these environments can also be challenging for learners, which may result in a disconnect between promise and reality. The chapter introduces MOOCs and language MOOCs (LMOOCs), considering their purposes and the reasons why learners enrol in LMOOCs. Communication opportunities and challenges in LMOOCs are reviewed, and relevant findings from research and practice are identified. Special consideration is given to the provision of feedback to learners. Fostering speaking among learners has generally been a challenge, due to the scale and openness of LMOOCs. The chapter offers recommendations for research and practice relating to the educator’s role, learners’ autonomy, affordances of communication technology, integration of LMOOCs into classroom practice, and cultural issues in communication. It is also recommended that MOOC providers should work together with educators to provide learners with adequate and innovative technological tools to facilitate their productive skills practice. Future directions are identified, emphasizing scalable methods of analysing learner activity and taking advantage of developments in artificial intelligence, including ways of supporting learners through interactions with conversational agents.

Educators have always harnessed the power of ludic activities for facilitating learning in low-tech teaching contexts, including for the teaching of foreign and second languages (L2s). Most current research on L2 learning with games has focused on informal (naturalistic) learning, has adopted a technology-centric perspective that prioritizes digital games which are ill-suited for most teaching contexts, and, particularly, has neglected the role of teachers. As teacher mediation is critical for enabling student learning, this chapter surveys work that shows how language teachers can leverage the opportunities inherent in games and play with a view to strengthening the naturalistic learning of their students. We spotlight the key role of the teacher in mediating learners’ language and literacy development, before, during, and after L2 activities through and around games. We also consider how the purposeful use of digital technology around games and play supports both learners and teachers in reaching their goals. We illustrate this through exemplary studies that are grounded in various pedagogies, and utilize both analogue and digital games that can be implemented in real classrooms. In doing so, we give equal importance to tools and technology (ludic materials), language learning goals, and pedagogical rigor.

This chapter focuses on digital collaboration when learning an additional language (L2), a specific type of learner–learner interaction. In CALL contexts, collaboration has almost exclusively been researched in connection with writing, which will be the focus of this chapter. The chapter first provides a definition of collaboration versus cooperation and then a literature review of digital collaboration, mainly in writing contexts. We conclude with a list of strategies for promoting collaboration and suggestions for future collaboration contexts and research.

The use of technology in language learning classrooms depends largely on its availability and accessibility. Language practitioners in the twenty-first century continue to face the issue of digital divide, as some developing countries struggle to provide basic hardware such as computers, projectors, and speakers in every language classroom and rely heavily on the technology they and their students bring to class. This is complicated further when language learning must be done online and remotely, as reliable internet connectivity is required but not always available. Numerous language teachers in these low-tech environments have adopted the low-tech approach by maximizing the affordability of “simple” hardware such as feature phones and “common” tools such as email and mobile applications such as chat apps. They engage in technology literacy, which reaches the level of inventive use of “common” technology that has long been used to bring sound pedagogy to various modes of language learning. The chapter attempts to describe how language is taught in low-tech environments and how an inclusive approach must use technology that assures that no one is excluded. It also describes how the incorporation of simple technology into various modes of language teaching and learning has supported sound language pedagogy through creativity and flexibility.

The issue of whether technology is inherently motivating for learners and teachers has often been discussed in the literature around computers and language learning. Yet, there is more to this relationship than initially meets the eye. This chapter outlines the ways in which symbolic power plays a part in both personal and institutional motivations for the adoption of technology. The chapter also looks at the way motivation is often credited as a key to success, though rarely with much empirical evidence. Finally, the article takes on a practitioner’s viewpoint to share several motivational techniques that can assist with practice and research.

Distance learning has grown in popularity since the beginning of the century, and the affordances of the rapid development of online audiovisual and mobile technologies have made it easier to learn languages at a distance. This chapter defines the concept of distance language learning as learning that is designed to take place when teachers and learners are not together in the same physical space and learning is mostly mediated through technology. It focuses on distance learning that both students and teachers have chosen as their method of delivery, as opposed to an imposition in response to an emergency situation such as the COVID-19 pandemic. The chapter presents a brief history of the evolution of distance language learning, exploring current and past tools, methods, and beliefs in the teaching and assessment of languages in a distance learning context. It also outlines the characteristics of successful distance learners and teachers, as well as some of the challenges they face. It concludes by arguing that the rapid improvement in speech recognition and translation software is likely to transform distance language learning in the near future.

This book has explored a broad variety of ways in which technology can be conceptualized, used, viewed, and researched in the teaching and learning of a second language. This concluding chapter brings together some of the overall trends that the chapters have revealed and explores how technology in second language education can be best capitalized upon for best practice. It also provides insights into how teachers, learners, and administrators can prepare themselves for the advances that are happening in the field, and how these are likely to impact upon research and practice.

Although technology has transformed the landscape of pedagogy, some language teachers are still reluctant to use educational technology, and this is referred to as “resistance to change.” This resistance is complex, and as a result, the biggest challenge in language pedagogy is to prepare teachers to integrate technology into their classrooms. This chapter provides an overview of historical and current explanations for teacher resistance to computer-assisted language learning (CALL), discusses factors influencing teachers’ technology use, and critically examines challenges for CALL teacher education in specific sociocultural contexts. Additionally, suggestions for breaking down resistance are provided for educational institutions, teacher educators, in-service and pre-service teachers. Finally, this chapter concludes with recommendations for future research and classroom practice to guide professional development.

This chapter examines the concept of L2 speaking by detailing several technologies that can be used to support the development of oral production in a foreign language. Relevant theoretical and historical concepts are first discussed to give readers a foundation to understand the factors that influence the L2 speaking process. The next sections delve into emerging technologies that show promise in supporting speaking development. The chapter concludes with future directions related to L2 speaking teaching and learning.

Literacy is the ability to make use of visible language, and it is fundamental to language education. This chapter focuses on what teachers should know about digital technologies but begins with broad background and context related to multiliteracies, metaphors, and cultural dimensions of technology use. It then focuses on four key areas where teachers play an important role in the development of their students’ language and literacy abilities via technology: autonomy, mobility, creativity, and communities. It then discusses two controversial areas of current pedagogical research and practice: artificial intelligence and machine translation. It concludes with a call for greater attention to two additional areas highly relevant to language development: literacies related to film and digital communication in the context of study abroad.