The validity of conclusions drawn from specific research studies must be evaluated in light of the purposes for which the research was undertaken. We distinguish four general types of research: description and point estimation, correlation and prediction, causal inference, and explanation. For causal and explanatory research, internal validity is critical – the extent to which a causal relationship can be inferred from the results of variation in the independent and dependent variables of an experiment. Random assignment is discussed as the key to avoiding threats to internal validity. Internal validity is distinguished from construct validity (the relationship between a theoretical construct and the methods used to operationalize that concept) and external validity (the extent to which the results of a research study can be generalized to other contexts). Construct validity is discussed in terms of multiple operations and discriminant and convergent validity assessment. External validity is discussed in terms of replicability, robustness, and relevance of specific research findings.

Although lying is frequently associated with problem behaviors, recent research also suggests that lying to parents is part of a normative developmental process that serves important functions for the growth and maintenance of adolescent autonomy and reflects complex and mature moral reasoning. This chapter examines adolescent lie-telling as an information management strategy and a form of everyday resistance that adolescents engage in as they strive for autonomy and increased independence in their relationships with parents. Connections between adolescent lie-telling and the development of their autonomy and moral evaluations are considered in detail. The chapter examines adolescent lying as a concealment strategy and situates lying among other information management techniques discussed in this volume. Literature on the developmental trajectory of lying is discussed, with an eye toward the changing alchemy of the adolescent–-parent relationship as children enter and move through adolescence.

This chapter focuses on the study of organizations as complex and dynamic social systems. We start our discussion of quantitative organizational research by outlining what organizations are and why we need to study them. We dive into doing research in organizations with specific focus on using theory to guide research methods and three critical organizational dimensions that should inform research design choices: units and levels of analysis, structures and hierarchies, and time and change. We then present and analyze the potential and limitations of descriptive, correlational, and experimental designs in organizational research, using contemporary examples of research to ground our analysis. We also cover data collection considerations, sampling strategies, and sources of organizational data. We close this chapter with discussions of equity issues, in particular ethics, diversity, and inclusion in organizational research.

Recent research endeavors have demonstrated the immense promise of team science to move the field of social and personality psychology forward. In this chapter, we introduce readers to the concept of team science as a model in which diverse teams collaborate on larger-scale research projects. These teams can bring people together from multiple labs, academic disciplines, or sectors to answer a shared question. Working in teams offers a number of benefits, allowing us to increase access and representation in our research, implement different methods and tools, answer more complex questions, and have greater social impact. We offer an overview of different models of team science and how researchers can expand their own teams, adhering to the principles of open communication, commitment to diversity and inclusion, clear roles and expectations, and cooperative decision-making. We also address some of the challenges inherent to team science and how to overcome them in order to make our science as efficient, fair, and impactful as possible.

For lesbian, bisexual, gay, and queer (LGBQ+) youth, disclosure of a nonheterosexual identity to parents (“coming out”) is part of identity development processes during adolescence. LGBQ+ youth in the United States who disclose at the present time do so in the context of heightened visibility and rights for LGBQ+ people, yet disclosure to parents remains complicated for many. In this chapter, we discuss contemporary research on LGBQ+ youth disclosing to parents. Focal topics include (a) disclosure as part of forming an LGBQ+ identity, (b) navigating identity disclosure and concealment decisions, (c) implications of disclosure on youth well-being and parent-adolescent relationships, and (d) methodological and ethical concerns, such as protecting the rights of LGBQ+ adolescents to participate in research and safeguarding participants’ privacy. Although most research involves LGBQ+ youth disclosing to cisgender, heterosexual parents, we discuss emerging research on “second-generation” LGBQ+ youth who disclose to sexual minority parents. We conclude with future directions for research to progress the work on information management and parental monitoring in the lives of LGBQ+ youth.

Observational data are valuable for many research studies across different fields and can be appropriate for various studies, including qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods research. Observations can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured and are often combined with other methods such as interviews and documentary analysis. In this chapter, we focus on the practical aspects of observational data, including identifying appropriate settings and gaining access, determining the role of the observer and the level of participation during observation, and planning how the data will be collected, recorded, and analyzed. We also emphasize the role of reflexivity – an important tool for the observer to ensure they are aware of how they are influencing the data observed. Although there are many benefits to observation as a data collection method, there are also challenges, limitations, and ethical issues to address; all these areas will be considered in this chapter.

Surface electromyography (EMG) measurements provide a non-invasive way to measure physical behavior in a way that is more sensitive and less prone to bias compared to observational methods. This chapter covers the use of EMG in social and behavioral research. First, the biological underpinnings of muscle activity are briefly reviewed to give the reader a basic understanding of the signal being measured. Next, the steps for obtaining the EMG signal are covered, including equipment and signal processing. Finally, some common use cases of EMG measures in social and behavioral research are reviewed. With modern-day equipment, EMG measures can be collected both in the traditional laboratory setting and, when signal noise concerns are acknowledged, in the “real world.”

Open-ended survey questions (OESQs) are a flexible and efficient method of collecting qualitative data but have received little attention in qualitative methods research and teaching. Here, I discuss OESQs as a stand-alone data collection method, a demographic data collection method, and an adjunct to researcher-derived survey responses. I explore the advantages and disadvantages of OESQs, review previous research using them, and provide practical guidance for survey design, data collection, and data analysis. When used thoughtfully, OESQs have potential to collect rich data from large samples and allow for exciting new directions in qualitative and survey research.

Adolescent disclosure and information management with parents have been significantly examined within the last two decades for good reason, as it allows researchers to understand how adolescents are balancing both autonomy and relatedness within this important relationship and developmental period. However, parents are not the only close relationship partners that adolescents must learn to navigate this balance with; siblings and friends are also important confidants throughout adolescence and disclosure to these more egalitarian relationships is both similar to and different from disclosure to parents. In this chapter, we compare and contrast the frequency and content of adolescent disclosure to parents, siblings, and friends, as well as the ways in which disclosure affects each of these relationships and adolescent well-being. Finally, we examine the limitations of the current information management literature across these relationships and offer future directions toward integrating these literatures.

The scientific community fundamentally requires the conduct of research to meet ethical standards. Bureaucracy and regulation may enforce these requirements, but they ultimately reflect the underlying values of science and the social norms that translate these values into practice. In creating knowledge, scientists must protect research participants, and they are also obliged to treat their data and communications in accordance with honesty, transparency, and a commitment to the benefit of society. We review the history and current state of human participant protection; make a case that many of the changes in standards of data handling and publication reporting over the past ten years themselves have ethical dimensions; and briefly list a number of pending ethics issues in research and publishing that do not as yet have a clear, consensual resolution in the field of psychology.

This chapter highlights the utility of cultural imagination, the ability to see human behaviors not just as the result of their dispositions or immediate situations but also as the result of larger cultural contexts. Our cultural imagination, as researchers, evolves as we are increasingly exposed to ideas from different parts of the world, either through collaboration with other researchers or interacting with individuals outside our immediate cultural context. While cross-cultural research has become simpler with the rise of the Internet, there still remain many challenges. This current chapter delineates concrete steps one can take to conduct an informative cross-cultural study, increasing the diversity of databases for generalizable theories of personality and social behaviors.

This chapter profiles a description of the paths that shaped research on parental monitoring and adolescents’ information management. As these areas developed, accounts of the interplay between parents’ attempts to regulate their adolescents’ behavior and adolescents’ responses grew in breadth and in detail. In this chapter, we introduce readers to the constructs and frameworks that have come to represent monitoring and information management research, including related topics that have been probed in diverse attempts to better understand parenting and adolescents’ behaviors. We track developments in the field from the initial challenges to research on parental monitoring, to the rapid shift emphasizing adolescents’ information management and challenging assumptions about monitoring specifically and parental control more generally. Finally, we not how these broad examinations of monitoring and parental control have led to theory development and offer suggestions for continuing these efforts.