In assessing international law governing submarine warfare, we consider how peacetime rules from the law of the sea apply in an armed conflict and focus on the law of neutrality and the law of armed conflict (international humanitarian law). The allocation of rights and duties within different maritime zones continues, albeit with some modifications, during an armed conflict. Most notably, the law of neutrality establishes how those rights and duties change depending on a State’s status as a belligerent or neutral. The use of submarines during armed conflict is also governed by the law of naval warfare and they are largely subject to the same rules that restrict surface warships in relation to targeting, as well as the means and methods of warfare. While submarines are predominantly governed as warships, we note how operational limitations of submarines may affect the interpretation of some rules.

Chapter 4, “The Amazon as a Place for Global Conservation”, unpacks the tensions and conflicts of conceiving the Amazon as a field of global conservation and examines the prospects to scale indigenous politics of conservation and reimagine conservation policies in the local and international spheres. For this aim, this Chapter discusses the theories for decolonizing conservation, how they help to explain environmental conflicts in the Amazon, and their strengths and gaps. Then, it provides an overview of the conservation architecture and associated conflicts in the Peruvian Amazon through three cases that show the international and local interactions around conservation politics and policies. Ultimately, the Chapter provides insights to revisit critical theories on conservation and the importance of international governance for reinventing conservation practices and policies in the Amazon and beyond.

Issues of race and racism have been highly controversial in contemporary China. This chapter examines the significance of various events and the polemics they provoked around the politics of race and nationalism. Indeed, the controversy has to be appreciated in light of the rise of nationalistic feelings among Chinese netizens, who have insisted that the fashion world should no longer cater to Western aesthetics and should align with the aesthetics of Chinese people.

Chapter 3 discusses the critical potential of environmental synecdoche in works of fiction that question the autonomy of human agency. Jeanette Winterson’s The Stone Gods (2007) and Jeff VanderMeer’s Southern Reach trilogy (2014) mock fantasies of control by portraying humans as inseparable from multi-scalar assemblages and symbiotic associations. I read these novels as experiments in the cognitive modelling of agency at unfamiliar scales: both the microscale of a postgenomic imaginary and the macroscale of planet and species demanded by Anthropocene awareness. These fictions, I suggest, explore the difficulty of reconciling environmental responsibility with the dispersal of agency inherent to biomedical and ecological perspectives. Both novels experiment with multi-scalar tropes as a means of modelling agency at unfamiliar scales and enabling environmental response-ability. In each narrative, I contrast the lure of analogical images with the poetics of critical synecdoche, which engages productively with the complexity of diffuse environmental agency.

Our starting point in this book is that across the globe, race – and its articulations with other forms of identification, ideology, and practice – remains one of the key conceptual tools to secure sociopolitical dominance, develop cultural politics of resistance, and engage in self-identification. Yet race opens up a major field of contradiction and misunderstanding. On the one hand, the ideas and practices of race that emerged with European expansion and colonization have impacted all modern societies – even as we should be sensitive to the particularity of histories and experiences in different places. On the other hand, the general accepted view is that there is no such thing as biological race; race is socially constructed, and its meanings are created for sociopolitical ends. Along with many others, we take the view that, while biological race is not “real,” “folk” ideas about it continue to proliferate as if race were natural, shaping sociopolitical relations and cultural practices.

Driven originally by colonization and more recently by globalization, for more than four centuries the English language has been spreading to all corners of the globe, producing distinct and stable young varieties as well as the young discipline of ‘World Englishes’ to describe and analyze them. The present paper surveys and discusses several models that have been developed to explain the bewildering variety of forms and contexts which characterize these varieties. Early classifying approaches include categorizations and visualizations of varieties and variety types based on some of their properties, most importantly Kachru’s ‘Three Circles’ model. An evolutionary perspective is at the center of the ‘Dynamic Model’ of postcolonial Englishes. More recent trends at theorizing capture the ongoing dynamism and diversification of English by highlighting ‘forces’ which drive this process; in general, boundaries between nations are seen as diminishing also through the unbounded spread of linguistic forms in cyberspace. A few more suggestions at and reflections on modelling, most importantly Hundt’s comparison of theoretical and statistical modelling, are summarized and assessed.

This chapter explores how Emerson’s essays are tantamount to a new kind of distinctively American art. It suggests Emerson’s importance for subsequent artistic, literary, and musical experimentation and his role as a transitional figure from Romanticism to the modern and contemporary periods. Whether in the experimental writing of Marcel Proust, Ralph Ellison, or John Ashbery, or in the experimental music of Charlie Parker, Duke Ellington, Charles Ives, and Elliot Carter, it prompts us to find an Emersonian “self-reliant” art – an art that tests out new independences, opens to complexities of movement and form, and an art that skates, surprises, atomizes, and swings.

This chapter reviews the history and development of Māori and Pasifika Englishes in New Zealand, focusing on both segmental and suprasegmental aspects of their phonetics/phonology. We review evidence that Māori English has higher pitch and more syllable-timed rhythm than Pākehā English, and suggest that a distinctive Māori English voice quality is not yet well understood. L1-type and L2-type varieties of Pasifika English are distinguished, highlighting the role of transfer in the formation of these varieties. The differences between Pākehā, Māori and Pasifika Englishes in New Zealand are a matter of frequency of use, rather than of absolutes, both in terms of the linguistic features and the social variables with which they co-occur. We problematise any straight-forward description of these varieties as revolving solely around ethnicity, given the interconnectedness of ethnic identities in New Zealand.

Maconchy’s elder daughter Anna Dunlop, née LeFanu, provides detailed personal recollections. Maconchy’s childhood, studies, marriage to William LeFanu and early success is covered by memories that she shared with her daughter, including the struggle with tuberculosis.

From the Second World War onwards, Dunlop’s own reminiscences demonstrate that alongside her professional life, Maconchy was an affectionate, caring and maternal figure. She was skilled domestically: cooking and preserving, dress making and gardening. Wartime and evacuation were isolating. However her marriage and family life was a happy and fulfilling one and from the nineteen fifties she once again balanced this successfully with an increasingly busy professional life. Dunlop writes that her mother seldom took a break, but with her husband returned to Ireland for holidays whenever they could.

Dunlop left home for university in 1957, where her reminiscences end. Her conclusion notes that Maconchy was full of energy in all she undertook, for her family and for other composers.

Concerned with Emerson’s aging and the authorial integrity of his later works, critics traditionally discounted the compositions Emerson delivered or published after 1860. Important editorial scholarship, however, has opened new prospects for reconsidering the intellectual vitality of late Emerson, now accessible in The Later Lectures and in the publication of the final volumes of the Collected Works, including Society and Solitude (1870) and Letters and Social Aims (1875). Building upon the critical reconsideration of Emerson’s considerable engagement in aesthetic, cultural, and philosophical matters beyond the 1850s, this chapter identifies Emerson’s rhetoric as a significant concept in, and creative context for, the sometimes collaborative and often iterative “recomposition” of the later work. Three rhetorical figurations of Emerson’s late styles – metonymy, analogy, and translation – are traced across works such as “Eloquence,” “Poetry and Imagination,” “Quotation and Originality,” and the unfinished Natural History of Intellect.

This chapter draws out international laws applicable to ensure the navigational safety of submarines and to establish what laws apply when a submarine is ultimately lost at sea. The discussion is concerned with both military and private submarines during times of peace. To avoid collisions, submarines must account for surface traffic as well as submerged traffic and deploy appropriate signals and sounds. Submarines prompt distinct questions with regards to navigational safety. Where a submarine is in distress and ultimately sinks, consideration is further needed as to international law rules on search and rescue, as well as the law of wrecks and possible salvage. For submarines that have been lost at sea for a long time, safeguarding underwater cultural heritage may become a key consideration. When lost at sea, the relevant laws are comparable to other ships or warships but the difficulty rests in the interaction of those rules.

The use of submarines in World War II and the development of submarine technology into the Cold War had implications for different fields of international law. This chapter addresses the peace negotiations and agreements that were adopted after World War II, which concerned the decommissioning (to varying degrees) of submarines and efforts to revise the Montreux Treaty. International law developments were sometimes slow, as evident in responses to violations of the law of naval warfare. Equally, the chapter highlights the rise of nuclear technology in relation to submarines and the modest advances in international agreements on nuclear tests. Despite the growing strategic importance of submarines in the Cold War, their explicit regulation in the 1958 conference and treaties on the law of the sea was scant. Instead, international laws relating to the passage of warships and military activities on the high seas generally impacted international laws regulating submarine operations.

Tuberculosis (TB) is an ancient disease of humans shown to be infectious by Robert Koch in 1882. It primarily affects the lungs and has been a major cause of human morbidity and mortality throughout history. When Elizabeth Maconchey developed TB in 1932, in the pre-drug era, Britain had developed an approach to treatment of which the core was hygiene therapy: this involved a healthy climate, strict rest and improved nutrition. Such care was provided in sanatoria, but could also be carried out in the home with supervision by a tuberculosis dispensary. Maconchey left London, Britain’s centre of musical life, to improve her environment and began a program of rest with slowly progressive exercise and nutrition. The management of TB evolved to include vaccination with BCG, mass screening using skin tests (tuberculin) and x-rays, surgical therapies (artificial pneumothorax, thoracoplasty) until replaced by effective, curative drug therapy in the 1950s.

Since ancient times, at least at the level of theory, there has existed in the world a very basic idea of the rights and obligations of any two groups fighting against each other. The legislatures of Ancient Greece had formulated the law that those killed in war must be buried. They prohibited killing people from the losing side who took refuge in places of worship. They also proscribed killing sportsmen and the servants of places of worship. However, firstly, these laws did not apply to international wars [bayn al millī]. The lawmakers had introduced these laws to regulate their internal strife and battles. Secondly, seen from a practical perspective, it transpires that the empires of that time neither accepted these injunctions as laws nor implemented them. The Roman empire, in particular, did not accept the legal status of any non-Roman country, and had no concept of dealing with them on the basis of any rights and obligations. The same was the case with the Persian empire. They considered non-Persian [ghair Iranī] nations barbaric. To them, the non-Persian empires were in fact traitors who had rebelled against the Persian empire. Therefore, when at war with any such nation, the Persians did not feel any ethical obligations binding on them.

This chapter outlines the development of pidgin and creole varieties of English worldwide. The foundational assumption is that creole languages emerge from pidginized varieties or at least ones strongly shaped by second-language acquisition. As such, the Australian and Oceanic languages such as Tok Pisin and Australian Aboriginal English will be treated as creolizations of initial pidgins (rather than as “pidgins” themselves, as they often have been), as will the West African languages often called “pidgins” such as Nigerian and Cameroonian “Pidgin” English. The chapter will also treat the creoles of the Caribbean and surrounding area along with the aforementioned West African varieties as sister languages born of an ancestral pidgin. Hawaiian “Pidgin” English, including controversy over its origins, will also be covered, as well as Chinese Pidgin English and Pitkern/Norf’k.