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Despite recent claims to the contrary, noun incorporation has an undeniable syntactic reality in some languages. In Greenlandic Eskimo and Southern Tiwa, the incorporated nominal displays many syntactic, semantic, and discourse-functional features of independent nominals—features which much recent work would lead us to doubt could characterize proper subparts of words. Linguistic theory must therefore allow for some limited interpenetration of the two modules of syntax and morphology.
The Comparative Method in historical linguistics may in favorable circumstances be extended to comparative historical poetics and comparative historical ethnosemantics—the ‘new comparative philology’. The vocabulary of some cases is examined in the texts: ‘custom’ from ‘own (∗swe/o-) established usage’ and its pragmatic linkage to reciprocal interpersonal relations in Indo-European society. Examination of new facts in this light motivates the inclusion of Hittite in the same Indo-European ideology. Linguistic comparison may extend to higher units than sounds and forms; several are proposed which permit the reconstruction of formulaic phrases, whole complex sentences, and even proto-texts or text fragments. The new parameters of poetics and ethnosemantics permit a precision in historical linguistics hitherto impossible.
In the modern Aramaic dialect of the Jews of Azerbaijan, emphasis (pharyngealization) behaves much like vowel harmony, though it affects consonants and vowels alike. An autosegmental analysis of its distribution shows that emphatic spans are underlyingly marked as such, whereas plain spans must have no initial specification as to emphasis, and are eventually pronounced as non-emphatic by default. In mixed words, which are part plain and part emphatic, emphasis is underlyingly associated with a particular syllable; but in words which are emphatic throughout, the underlying mark of emphasis is floating—not associated with any particular segmental position.