The aim of this article is to call attention to two exceptionally important portrayals of pilgrims at Becket's tomb and shrine, both of them in panels of stained glass. The first, a panel from window nV, one of the Becket miracle windows of Canterbury Cathedral, depicts a crowd of pilgrims behind, alongside, and in front of Becket's tomb in the cathedral's crypt [Fig. 2.1]. Becket was hastily buried in the crypt on 30 December 1170, the day after his murder. Becket's first pilgrims flocked to this tomb in the crypt: it is here where his relics were first revered. In 1174, a fire badly damaged the eastern arm of the cathedral. While it was being rebuilt and filled with stained glass, Becket remained in his tomb in the crypt. The nV panel was executed in the mid-1180s, during this period of rebuilding and reglazing. It was made for one of the ambulatory windows in the grand upper chapel, now known as the Trinity Chapel, which was built to house Becket's shrine. Due to disputes and delays, Becket's translation from the crypt to a shrine in the Trinity Chapel did not occur until 7 July 1220. The tomb in the crypt remained a stopping point for late medieval pilgrims, as we know from donations made to it, but the shrine was the great object of a Canterbury pilgrimage. The hundreds of thousands of medieval pilgrims who visited the Trinity Chapel to see the shrine only needed to look up to see window nV and its panel portraying earlier Becket pilgrims at the crypt tomb.

While Bede did not frequently write in detail about work when narrating the lives of the saints, he did foreground pastoral agriculture in one of his most famous tales. In the Historia Ecclesiastica, Bede relates the miracle of Cædmon, a lay worker of Whitby who would receive the gift of poetry one night in a vision, thereafter entering the monastery as a monk under the authority of the abbess Hild (614–680 C.E.). On the night in question, Cædmon, because he could not sing, left the hall when the harp approached and ‘went to the cattle byre, as it was his turn to take charge of [the cattle] that night’ (ad stabula iumentorum, quorum ei custodia nocte illa erat delegata), encountering an angelic visitor while caring for the livestock.1 The remainder of the story, set in a suitably symbolic location for the ‘nativity’ of poetry in English,2 describes Cædmon's later life as a monk-poet, providing little insight into his work with the cattle.

Previous scholarship has demonstrated that the Fuller Brooch, one of the most intriguing possessions of the British Museum dating from early medieval England, must be considered as one of the objects stemming directly from King Alfred's cultural milieu. As I have argued elsewhere, part of the iconography of the brooch also shows tight connections with King Charles the Bald's court and cultural circle, and is therefore very revealing of the intense ongoing cultural exchanges between England and the Continent in the ninth century. The brooch testifies to cultural links, influences and appropriation. This essay intends to explore and discuss one further aspect of this appropriation process: the possibility that the iconography of the inluminatio, of ultimately Continental origin, was used, on the brooch, to create a visual kenning, that is a material counterpart, on an art object, of the poetic compounds so typical of Germanic verse.

The Figurative Meaning of Sight in the Fuller Brooch

The iconography of the Fuller Brooch is part of an ongoing open debate. The brooch, which had originally been found in the possession of a London bric-à-brac dealer, under mysterious circumstances, was at some point declared a fake and retired from the Ashmolean Museum, where it had been exhibited on loan for some time. Eventually, it was recognised as a genuine ninth-century English brooch and acquired from Captain A. W. F. Fuller by the British Museum in 1952.

Land was highly prized by the nobility and gentry of England and was central to their lifestyles and livelihoods. Many noble families reached the heights of power and influence almost solely on the back of their landed resources, which were of great importance and not to be squandered. To be sure, as the above anonymous advice shows, there were many pitfalls that could trip up a premodern investor and purchaser of land. Land could carry with it many encumbrances and defective land title was a major hazard in the land market of the fifteenth century. Nevertheless, K. B. McFarlane, in his study of the investments made by Sir John Fastolf, views such encumbrances as posing insufficient risk to discourage would-be landowners; advantages aplenty, it was inferred, awaited the judicious investor in land. As McFarlane points out, ‘land had for [Fastolf] immaterial attractions…it brought him vexation but prestige, and the sheer joy of ownership’.

As long as the Welch continued under their own Princes […] solemn Assemblies were held once in three years, in whch the […] Bardd cadeirjawg, or the inthroned Bard, was elected […] his residence in Court was assign’d him in the houshold of the hereditary Prince, & he had the privilege of sitting at the King (or reigning Prince’s) Table

Thomas Gray, Commonplace Book II (c.1758), ff. 809–11.

The suicidal Snowdonian of Thomas Gray's ‘The Bard’ (1757) remains the most famous Welsh bardic character in eighteenth-century literature. Stood on his rock above ‘Conway's foaming flood’, bereft of one ruler and pursued by another, this bard seems at one with the peripheral mountains he inhabits – an early indication that the idea of bardism was becoming entwined with ‘remote’ landscapes, attractively distant from the centres of British power. Gray was well aware (as the quotation above suggests) of another kind of bardic figure: seated at his ruler's table, honoured at court as an important functionary, and central to the workings of the state. His poem, however, is in many ways a deliberate inversion of this role: Gray's bard is exiled from a courtly setting by the overthrow of his prince, execrates rather than praises the Anglo-Norman ruler at his feet, and seeks to ruin the royal house he addresses.3 This bard is allowed, through prophecy, to praise more recent British monarchs, but (as many commentators have argued) he remains significantly detached from the literary and courtly culture of Gray's own time, unable to hear the ‘distant warblings’ of ‘long futurity’.

The poetic ballad is a favourite Sturm und Drang fetish and rightfully so. Barely one year before Medea stormed the stage in Benda's melodrama, the Göttingen Musen-Almanach published in its 1774 issue ‘Lenore’, a poetic ballad by Gottfried August Bürger, whose text is viewed today as the most paradigmatic example of this genre in the German literary pantheon. Its plot is cut from the most classic Gothic fabric: unable to accept that her husband will ever return from the Seven Years War, Lenore is fooled by Death herself, who, taking the appearance of a knight and pretending to be her spouse, rides her to her own death during a stormy and spectral night.

The poetic ballad is attuned to Sturm und Drang for many reasons: the genre heralded some of the main period's artistic and cultural credos as well as its contradictions. Like melodrama, the ballad was a curious hybrid. Its orality was construed as a marker of ‘authenticity’, exhibiting its archaism through acoustic figures, such as its reliance on onomatopoeias: ‘Und außen, horch! ging's trap trap trap, | […] Ganz lose, leise, klinglingling! […] Und hurre hurre, hop hop hop!’ These utterances pointed towards a supposed natural form of expression predating figurative language. And yet, the ballad could not have existed without the artificial elaboration of writing. Fuelled by a patchwork of geographically diverse literary traditions, the ballad was nevertheless promoted as a typical emanation of the German Volksgeist, an association that has always been at the core of this genre; by the 1900s, the ballad became increasingly tied to culturally and politically reactionary ideals until it was ideologically hijacked by nationalistic discourses during the Third Reich.

Under the Test Act of 1673 the Georgian navy only employed officers who were members of the Church of England. Alexander Schomberg had to become a Christian before he could be commissioned as a lieutenant. Chaplains were carried in ships of the line, and they would have taken the service on Sunday. If there was no chaplain, the captain took the service. After the service, it was expected that the captain would read the Articles of War to the crew, gathered below him on the deck. The rules which pertained to prizes were carefully worded to leave no ambiguity at all in the minds of the listening crew.

• • Everyone on board was reminded of the standard of behaviour expected, and the punishment determined by court martial if not achieved

• • Every member of the navy, from flag officers down, had to behave Appropriately

• • Spying for or consorting with the enemy was forbidden

• • Every element of any prize taken had to be respected and secured

• • No member of the enemy's crew was to be molested once taken

• • Every effort would be made to achieve success

• • Deserters would be court martialled

• • Convoys would be protected against all dangers, and without charge

• • Mutiny would be punished by death

• • Complaints about food or anything else should be reported to officers

• • Aggression against an officer or any other person in the fleet would be punished by court martial

• • Powder, shot and other stores were not to be wasted or embezzled

• • Damage to goods captured from the enemy would be punished by court Martial

• • Negligence in carrying out any office would be punished by court martial

• • Murder, buggery or robbery by anyone in the fleet would be punished by death or otherwise by sentence of court martial

In such a large project and with such a complex edition, it has been difficult to avoid some miscalculations and mistakes. References in volumes 1 and 2 to the location of the material for anniversary commemorations and to the appendices should be corrected from volume 3 to volume 4. Additions and corrections for the 1533 to 1660 section of volume 1 are given in Appendix 1 in this volume. The texts – orders, forms of prayer and addresses – were checked with particular care, but some errors have been found in the introductions and commentaries. Slips in spelling and grammar will be evident to readers, and easily corrected. The following list is concerned with factual errors, and more serious misprints. For the period to 1660, the evidence for the corrected dates and causes is supplied in Appendix 1.

VOLUME 1

pp. xv–xxiii and cxiii–clvii, the summary list 1533–1688 and the ‘Analytical list of particular occasions of special worship’. Further research has revealed additional occasions, which for 1533–1660 can be found in Appendix 1 of this volume; for 1689– 1870 in the ‘Additions and corrections’ and revised summary list in volume 2, pp. xvii– xxx, and for 1871–2016 in the ‘Additions and corrections’ and revised summary list in volume 3, pp. xix–xxix. Additional occasions after 2016 are in ‘Particular occasions 2016–23’ in this volume, pp. 413–91.

p. xlviii, lines 24–5. It is not easy to be precise about the total number of particular occasions presented in this edition, given the difficulties with (and likely losses of) early evidence and the problems of definition from the 1980s (for which see volume 3, pp. 687–9).

The New Laws of 1542

On November 20, 1542, in Barcelona, Emperor Charles V signed into law a decree for the governance of the Indies. The “New Laws of 1542” legislated on the treatment of Indians and replaced the “old” laws issued in the cities of Burgos and Valladolid in 1512 and 1513. The New Laws of 1542 were milestones in Spain's endeavor to reform and control the devastating consequences of the conquest in the Americas.

The laws represented the practical application of newly emerging theories on the nature of man, of freedom, of rights, and even of international law. As such, they stand as monuments to man's spirit ad desire to do what is right, on the basis of both Scripture and natural law.

That Las Casas is more closely associated with laws than anyone else makes them central in his life, iconic in both name and act. One can argue that they were, in fact, the highlight of his long career. The New Laws, along with his authorship of the Brief History of the Destruction of the Indies, which ignited and fueled the Black Legend are, indeed, what he is best known for in the history of Western civilization.

Let's examine his own words briefly. “My main motive,” he wrote in his History of the Indies, “in dictating this book was that I saw Spain had an urgent, a mortal need to have the truth, the light of the truth shed on Indian affairs, a long-standing need, and at every level of society.” Then Bartolomé warmed to his subject.

Those marked with an asterisk * were recaptured. No account of an escape by an American seaman has been found. Note by the asterisks below that most were recaptured.

• *Adams, John, from Edenton, North Carolina, escaped from Auxonne *Archer, Edward, from Baltimore, escaped from Cambrai *Ash, Richard, from Baltimore, escaped from Auxonne

• *Barnes, William, from Boston, escaped from Arras *Barnet, Charles, of New York, escaped from a French privateer at Amsterdam *Bassett, William, from Norfolk, Virginia, escaped from Valenciennes *Brosse, Henry, of Baltimore, escaped from Givet *Brown, John, of Boston, escaped from a French privateer at Dieppe

• *Caggin, Solomon, of Georgetown, escaped from a French privateer at Boulogne-sur-Mer

• *Campbell, Samuel, of Portsmouth, escaped from Longwy

• *Carpenter, Joseph, of Baltimore, escaped from Auxonne

• *Care or Carr, James, from New York, escaped from Arras Cook, Richard, of Philadelphia, escaped from Arras

• *Correl, Samuel, of Boston, escaped from Arras Cowing, Charles, of Boston, escaped from a French privateer at Boulogne-sur-Mer

• *Deal, Louis, of Annapolis, escaped from Cambrai

• Ellicot, Charles, of Dumfries, Virginia, escaped from a French privateer

• Gambles, William, escaped from a French privateer

• *Griggs, William, of New York, escaped from Arras

• *Hall, John, of Baltimore, escaped from a French privateer

• *Harrison, Thomas, escaped from the hospital at Briançon

The book is the culmination of a research project funded by the Ministry of Science, Innovation, and Universities of Spain entitled “American and British Pro-Francoism during the Early Cold War: Actors, Agendas, Influence Strategies, and Spanish Interlocutors (1945–1960).” The research for this book was undertaken between 2018 and 2021, and it was previously published in Spain in 2022. It is for the reader to decide whether the book's distinctive approach to the survival of the Franco regime during the first years of the Cold War is a convincing one.

While I have had the privilege of preparing the English edition of this book with the assistance of the excellent team at Tamesis led by Megan Millan, the ultimate credit for this work goes to Joan María Thomàs. He was the principal investigator of the research team that came together in 2017, and he was fundamental to the ultimate success of this project. Thomàs is an internationally renowned authority on Francoism, particularly in its early years, and his inspiration, support, and encouragement were instrumental in overcoming the challenges posed by COVID-19. I have had the good fortune of knowing Joan María for over ten years, having invited him to a seminar that I organized in Madrid in 2010 on Francoist foreign policy during the Second World War. His work had previously shaped key aspects of my doctoral research, but this seminar marked the beginning of an enduring friendship, accompanied in my case by deep admiration. We have since worked together on various projects, including the volume that he co-edited with Raanan Rein, Spain 1936: Year Zero (2019). The present book is certainly the most significant collaborative venture, but fortunately it will not be the last one.

Abstract: Beyond having strikingly similar plots and imagery, Goethe's Die Natürliche Tochter and Hitchcock's Marnie are emphatically concerned with the visual interplay of figure and ground. Both works highlight the volatile dynamic between a figure seeking to appear, or to make an entrance, and an obscure background that threatens to engulf the figure. This article accounts for such resonances by considering certain protocinematic aspects of Goethe's theatrical project. As Juliane Vogel has shown, Goethe's theater transforms the space of the background, demystifying its tragic depths and rendering it productive of emergent figures. This article maintains that Goethe's transformation of the theater is evocative of cinema and that from this vantage point, it allows Die Natürliche Tochter and Marnie to become mutually illuminating. In light of the parallels between these works, we see Goethe employing means of visual storytelling that bear a comparison with cinema, while Marnie can be understood as participating in Goethe's project of demystifying the obscure background of tragedy.

Keywords: Goethe, Hitchcock, Marnie, Entrance, Figure, Ground, Background, Cinema

The story concerns a girl of mysterious origins. Her favorite pastime is horseback riding. In one episode, she suffers a fall from her horse. In another, she unlocks a chest full of forbidden treasures. She is on the run; there are people seeking to do her harm.

Popularity and the Middle Ages

The Middle Ages are an essential part of contemporary popular culture and flourish in almost all genres and media formats. In literature, the genres of epic fantasy, the historical novel and children's and young adult literature use medieval scenarios and mythologies to construct fictional worlds. With the success of Peter Jackson's ground-breaking film adaptations of J.R.R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings (2001–03) from the beginning of the century, and subsequently The Hobbit (2012–14) and TV shows such as HBO's Game of Thrones (2011–19) and The History Channel's Vikings (2013–20), medieval imagery and settings seem to have become an integral part of the film and TV media, more popular than ever. Medievalism has also been strikingly successful in twenty-first century video gaming, from Blizzard's World of Warcraft (2004) and Bethesda's The Elder Scroll V: Skyrim (2004) to multiple game offerings in franchises such as Ubisoft's Assassin's Creed (2007, 2009, 2020), Paradox's Crusader Kings (2004, 2012, 2020), and Bioware's Dragon Age (2009, 2011, 2014, 2024). The successes of such high-profile products, which, like Game of Thrones, are frequently themselves adaptations of preexisting works, have resulted in the creation of vast transmedia franchises. Further, in activities such as board games, role-playing games and video games, reenactments and live-action role-playing games (LARPs), in music and musical theatre, in merchandising (textiles, trading cards, artifacts), material objects deriving from medievalist worlds are certainly far more popular than those from any other bygone era.

2020–1 Day of prayer (and period of prayer) during the coronavirus pandemic

Sunday 22 March 2020 (United Kingdom), and 17–23 March 2020 (England)

A coronavirus pandemic (code-named COVID-19) began in China in November 2019. It spread rapidly to other nations, placing health and hospital systems under severe strain and leading to large numbers of deaths. The World Health Organization declared an international public health emergency on 30 January 2020. On the following day, the first cases of the disease were reported in the United Kingdom; the first deaths were announced in early March. From February, as the number of cases and estimates of the likely death toll increased, the government of the United Kingdom and the devolved governments in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland announced a series of measures to try and contain the spread of the disease, and to prevent the National Health Service from becoming overwhelmed. These included ‘social distancing’ – keeping a two-metre distance between people who were not members of the same household. Health regulations issued by church leaders as well as the governments placed increasing limits on public worship and church business. On 10 March, Justin Welby and John Sentamu, the archbishops of Canterbury and York, advised that the chalice should not be used at holy communion. On 16 March, the UK government announced regulations against large gatherings and all ‘non-essential’ travel and contact with other people. This resulted in all churches and religious faiths announcing the suspension of services in their places of worship.