ABSTRACT

The coastal and marine resources in Southeast Asia are unequalled indensity and diversity by those in other parts of the world. Fisheries fromthe region supply about 10 per cent of global fish catch. Over the last 20to 30 years, these resources have been under threat of overexploitation,destruction, and extinction in some areas. This paper reviews the status ofthe most important coastal and marine resources in Southeast Asia; andhighlights the primary threats to their sustainable use and existence. Thedependency of coastal human populations on near-shore fisheries andresources is discussed in relation to the economic consequences of poormanagement of these resources. Finally, promising management strategies andgovernance systems from the Philippines are explored in terms of theirimplications on future research topics relevant to building sustainablefisheries. Research topics suggested include: 1) Continuous monitoring ofthe biophysical status of coastal resources so that policy makers are awareof the progress (or lack thereof) of protection and rehabilitation efforts;2) Cost-benefit analysis of the management of coastal resources andfisheries; 3) Investigating the causes of resource degradation frompollution and other impacts on the coastal environment; 4) Understanding thetradeoffs between small and large scale fisheries in Southeast Asia; 5)Testing models for integrated coastal and ecosystem-based managementincluding fisheries and economic development; 6) Testing ways to developalternative economies for small-scale fishers that reinforce protection andmanagement; 7) Augmenting and refining the integrated paradigms formanagement that put small-scale fisheries at the centre of a complexmanagement problem; and, 8) Learning more about how to build capacity formanagement.

INTRODUCTION

The coastal and marine resources in Southeast Asia are unequalled in density anddiversity by those in other parts of the world (Figure 10.1). It is well knownthat these tropical coastal areas are rich in coastal and marine ecosystemscomprised of coral reefs, mangroves, estuaries, beaches, and their associatedfisheries. Fisheries from the region supply about 10 per cent of global fishcatch.

ABSTRACT

Fisheries and aquaculture production are significant to Southeast Asianeconomies, mostly for food security and livelihood source. Its output in thesector steadily increased in the last forty years. However, a thoroughexamination of existing technologies for the fisheries sector is stillneeded before policies can be formulated. This paper discusses technologyprofiles for aquaculture and capture fisheries in the Southeast Asianregion, and also provides national action plans for Indonesia, Malaysia,Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam.

OVERVIEW

The capture fisheries and aquaculture sectors are of fundamental importance toSoutheast Asia in terms of food security, revenue generation, and employment.Both catching and farming aquatic resources form a vital part of the ruralpeople's livelihoods in several countries. Culturally, aquatic resourcesmean more than just a source of income or food supply. Traditional fisheryproducts such as fish sauce and fish-based condiments are significantingredients of people's daily diet and are not easily substituted. Allsizes and types of fish are utilised with very little wastage. Only recently hasit become apparent that fish play an essential role in both the food securityand nutritional security of many rural and coastal populations.

Fisheries and aquaculture production contribute significantly to nationaleconomies across the Southeast Asian region. This region is a major producer offish, both from aquaculture and capture. In the last four decades, output growthhas been very strong (APFIC 2004). Still, strategies for the sector must takecareful consideration of the characteristics of the technology both inaquaculture and fisheries. This paper provides a profile of aquaculture andcapture technologies in Southeast Asia, as well as a discussion of policy issuesand action plans. It draws heavily from a study conducted by the WorldFishCenter and partner national research organisations throughout the region(WorldFish Center 2005).

PROFILE OF TECHNOLOGIES

Aquaculture

Aquaculture, originally dedicated to ornamental fish and for subsistence (e.g.,naturally stocked water catchments), has been developed for several centuries inSoutheast Asia.

ABSTRACT

Fish stocks are widely reported to be in decline in many of theworld's oceans and inland water bodies. While this poses significantenvironmental problems, a major concern is the impact of these declines onmillions of people who depend on fish as a source of both food andlivelihood. Efforts to manage fish stocks for sustainable production have,in the past, focused on maintaining optimal productivity by managing fishingeffort and catch limitations. More recently, acknowledging the intrinsicrole of humans within the fisheries system has led to a more inclusiveapproach to integrate social, economic, and biological objectives withinfisheries management. Today, the particular importance of fish and fisheriesto the world's poor suggests a need to take a pro-poor approach tofisheries management to ensure that benefits from remaining fish stockscontinue to contribute to food security and livelihoods of thepoor.

To effectively improve fisheries management for the benefit of the poor,this paper argues that management approaches must address the inherentcomplexity and heterogeneity found in fisheries, and the differing needs ofboth fishers and non-fishers, for whom fish plays a role as a source offood, income, and employment. We conclude that understanding the diversenature of fishery activities and the role they play in rural livelihoods isessential if we are to avoid making potentially damaging assumptions aboutthe nature of fishing and the contribution of fish to the lives of the poor,leading to unintended interventional outcomes. We also argue that fishersare not passive beneficiaries of interventions, but rather ‘driversof change’ responding to the opportunities and constraints with whichthey are presented.

INTRODUCTION

As fish stocks are reported to be in decline throughout many of theworld's oceans and inland areas (e.g., Worm et al. 2006; Wong et al.2007; Garcia and Newton, 1997), concerns have been increasing in recent yearsnot only for the environmental impact of such declines, but also for thepotential effects of fish stock decline on the millions of people around theworld who depend on fish as both a source of food and livelihood.

Agriculture has traditionally been associated with the utilisation of land-basedresources. However, large segments of the rural poor in Southeast Asia aredependent on living aquatic resources, whether as consumers, fishers in coastaland inland waters, or fish farmers. Policy research has only recently begun torenew its focus on fisheries, leaving a host of policy issues related to povertyreduction and sustainability relatively unexplored.

As a regional leader for agriculture and rural development, SEARCA has embarkedon a collaborative research agenda for the fisheries sector, where many of therural poor are dependent for their livelihood and food. To frame that agenda,the initial step was to conduct a set of expert reviews to synthesise what isknown and not known, thereby highlighting important gaps in policy research. Tothis end, a conference participated in by top practitioners and researchers inthe field of Southeast Asian fisheries was co-organised by SEARCA, WorldFishCenter, and PCAMRD. Papers were presented and critiqued in discussions.Following the conference, the papers underwent further peer-review and technicalediting.

This book contains the papers, including a synthesis of agenda for futureresearch, presented during the conference. SEARCA offers this work as a handyreference material, providing insights to policy makers, researchers, andagricultural and rural development administrators to aid them in theirdecisionmaking processes.

ABSTRACT

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is committed todeepening and broadening its internal economic integration and linkages,with the participation of the private sector, to realise an ASEAN EconomicCommunity by 2010, ASEAN's endgoal. The fishery sector is one of the11 priority sectors identified by ASEAN Leaders. Roadmaps have beendeveloped to ensure that the various measures are effectively and aptlyimplemented to create an integrated market and production base for each ofthese sectors. The implementing guidelines fall under two categories: (1)common measures, which cut across all the 11 priority sectors; and (2)specific measures, which have direct relevance to a specific sector. Thispaper discusses the Roadmap for Integration of the Fisheries Sector,including the results of the key informant interviews conducted by theWorldFish Center's research team in 7 out of the 10 ASEAN countriesvisited. The paper also includes insights on the existing common andspecific measures contained in the roadmap, as well as recommendations onsome additional strategies that can help hasten the implementation of theroadmap agreement in member countries.

INTRODUCTION

In December 1997, ASEAN Heads of State and Government unveiled the ASEAN Vision2020. This document, among other things, envisioned a more economicallyintegrated ASEAN. In particular, the ASEAN Vision 2020 foresees a stable,prosperous, and highly competitive regional economic area where there is freemovement of goods, services, investments, and capital. Hence, the concept of anASEAN Economic Community (AEC) would seem to be consistent with the economicaspect of this Vision.

Under this initiative, the AEC will see the ASEAN becoming a single market andproduction base. The diversity that characterises the region will be turned intoopportunities and business complementation to make ASEAN a more dynamic andstronger segment of the global supply chain and world economy. It attempts tocombine the economic strengths of member states for regional cohesiveness andenhanced global competitiveness by accelerating the integration of the variouseconomic sectors in the member countries.

ABSTRACT

The ecosystem approach to fisheries management explicitly considers theintegrity of biophysical systems in identifying the management unit. Thescope of such integrated systems encompasses “ecoregions”,which span countries and raise transboundary issues. The two majorecoregions in Southeast Asia are the Mekong River Basin and theSulu-Sulawesi Seas. Both experience threats from rapid economic development,habitat loss, and overfishing. Cooperative management is essential toapproach a theoretical optimum in resource exploitation. Regionalcooperation arrangements are in place for the Mekong River Basin and in theSulu-Sulawesi seas; these are better established in the former, but evenhere there are policy-related constraints. Strengthening these regionalarrangements is essential for maintaining the long-term benefit flows, ofcritical importance to the poor, from these unique ecosystems.

INTRODUCTION

Environment and natural resources management, to be effective, should carefullyconsider the integrity of biophysical systems. This feature is explicit in theecosystem approach to resource management, which is named after the most basicfunctional unit in ecology. Just above it in the biophysical system hierarchy isthe ecoregion, defined by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) as a “large unitof land or water containing a geographically distinct assemblage of species,natural communities, and environmental conditions”. The world'secoregions for terrestrial and marine environments have been identified andcompiled by Olsen et al (2001) and Spalding et al (2007), under the auspices ofthe WWF. In Southeast Asia, the major ecoregions are the Mekong River Ecoregion(MRE) and the Sulu-Sulawesi Ecoregion (SSE).

The Mekong River Basin covers the area around the river and its tributaries,spanning six countries (China, Myanmar, Lao PDR, Thailand, Cambodia, and VietNam). The Basin is nearly the size of France and Germany together (about 0.8million km2). From its headwaters thousands of meters high on theTibetan Plateau, the Mekong River flows for 4,800 km, the 12thlongest in the world and the 6th largest in terms of total annual waterdischarge.

INTRODUCTION

Background

Indonesia is the largest archipelagic country in the world, with high diversityin terms of geography and climate, ecosystems, and species. These extensive andvaried natural resources have great potential for developing a wide spectrum offisheries activities. The population of over 220 million is predominantly young,with a relatively large proportion that are of working age. Majority still livein rural areas (both inland and coastal), and most ethnic groups have maintainedstrong farming traditions conducive for conversion to or development offisheries, including aquaculture activities. Indonesia can become a major worldplayer in the fisheries sector, based on both natural and human resources.

The Indonesian aquaculture sector is still dominated by small-scale businessunits, mainly in rural areas and often in remote settings. Previous developmentcycle statistics (2000-2004) show that 63 per cent of poverty and 42 per cent ofdeclared unemployment occurred in rural areas. The predominantly ruralaquaculture sector can play an increasingly important role in achieving three ofthe national pillars of development: (1) growth (pro-growth);(2) expansion of employment opportunities (pro-job); and (3)poverty reduction (pro-poor).

The president of the Republic of Indonesia launched the Revitalisation ofAquaculture Program on June 11, 2005, as part of the Revitalisation ofAgriculture, Fisheries and Forestry Program. Under the program for 2006-2009,three products have been launched as main fisheries commodities forrevitalisation: (1) tuna, (2) prawn/shrimp, and (3) seaweed, with shrimp andseaweed being classified under aquaculture. Eight additional strategiccommodities are being given special attention: tilapia, grouper, milkfish,pangasius, catfish, gourame, abalone, and ornamental fish. Seaweed is one of thefastest-growing export commodities; from a cultural point of view, it has provento be a well-adapted economic activity that can improve livelihoods of manycoastal communities. The Aquaculture Revitalisation Programme has increasedaquaculture production by as high as 24 per cent in 2006. In 2007, aquacultureproduction was expected to increase by 38 per cent.

OVERVIEW

Fisheries, which cover both aquaculture and capture of wild stocks, are animportant source of food and livelihood for the poor in Southeast Asia. In thisregion, fish consumption provides a large share of animal protein to the averageperson's diet, from 40 per cent in the Philippines and Thailand to 57 percent in Indonesia and Cambodia. Low-value fish, in particular, is a staple inthe diets of the poor. Fisheries comprise a fast-growing subset of agriculture.Production growth in the region has averaged 4.4 per cent annually from1980-2004, almost twice the 2.7 per cent production growth of other agriculturalproducts over the same period. Moreover, the share of fish in all agriculturalexports in the region reached 19 per cent in 2004, which is triple of1980's share of only 6 per cent. In addition, the value of fish exportsin 2004 ($9.5 billion) exceeded that of fruits and vegetables($4.1 billion), cereals ($3.9 billion), coffee, tea, and cocoa($2.7 billion), and poultry ($0.7 billion; all data from FAO,2006).

Despite its importance, the fisheries sector remains a neglected area inagricultural research and development, long dominated by crop agriculture.Fortunately, in recent years, this neglect is being corrected, as the economiccontribution and dynamism of fisheries have become more prominent. However,expectations of sustained growth for fisheries-dependent resources. The linksamong fisheries, poverty, and sustainability raise a host of important and openquestions for policy research.

To address these concerns, a regional conference was held under the auspices ofthe Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research inAgriculture (SEARCA), the WorldFish Center, and the Philippine Council forAquatic and Marine Research and Development (PCAMRD). The conference broughttogether leading regional and international fisheries policy experts andpractitioners. The conference reviewed existing knowledge and identifiedpriority research areas and policy directions for increasing and sustainingbenefits from fish production for the rural poor. Findings and recommendationswould contribute towards region-wide research and capacity-building program onfisheries and rural development by SEARCA and its partners.

ABSTRACT

In this paper, we review, compare and contrast the characteristics ofseafood supply chains in developed and developing countries, using the valuechain governance approach. It is identified that the linkage between povertyreduction and development of seafood industry in developing countries iscontingent on the nature of chain governance. Based on the comparative andcontrastive results, recommendations for enhancing the functionality ofpoverty alleviation for seafood supply chain in developing countries areproposed.

INTRODUCTION

The fishery sector contributes significantly to many coastal economies ingenerating income, employment, and foreign exchange earnings. In addition, thefishery sector is one of the key contributors to food security and povertyalleviation in many developing nations. It is deemed as being highly significantin most Southeast Asian countries, both in trade and consumption, and employmentand poverty terms (Thorpe, 2005). Global fishery production increased, at anannual rate of 1.7 per cent, from 130 mmt (million metric tons) in 2000 to 140mmt in 2004. While developed nations registered a slight decline of 1.5 per centduring the 2000-2004 period, they managed to increase their production at anannual rate of 2.7 per cent, raising its share from 75.5 per cent in 2000 to78.5 per cent in 2004. During the same period, the ten Southeast Asian nationsshowed an even more impressive growth at an annual rate of 5.7 per cent reachingalmost 22 mmt in 2004 (FAO FishStat 2006).

Much of the increase in fishery production can be attributed to tradeliberalisation and globalisation, resulting in a significant increase in globalfish trade. Global fish export increased from $55.6 billion in 2000 to$71.7 billion in 2004, at an annual rate of 6.6 per cent. The relativeimportance of fish trade can be seen in its export share of total merchandiseexports and agricultural exports. In 2004, fish export share to totalmerchandise export was less than 1 per cent globally, but fish export share ofthe developing countries was almost twice as much as that of the developedcountries at 1.1 per cent.

ABSTRACT

This paper reviews and synthesises available literature about fisheriesmanagement, property rights systems, and other institutionalarrangements.

It begins with an overview of the fundamental components of rights-basedsystems and uses this information to analyse the similarities and differenceof common characteristics of the property rights systems spectrum, fromconventional to alternative. The paper also gives an overview of variouselements of community-based and co-management approaches – i.e., theways in which stakeholders, especially fishers, communities, and governmentsinteract. The paper examines the community-based fisheries managementsystems in several case studies from fisheries in Southeast Asia, looking atthe respective elements of (i) rights-based systems and (ii) collaborativemanagement approaches.

In closing, the paper identifies some of the current knowledge gaps andtheir implications for region-wide research and policy towards improvingwell-being amongst poor fisheriesdependent households in SoutheastAsia.

INTRODUCTION

In the fisheries management arena, three lessons have been learned over time:

1. Fisheries are finite and as a result, catch has to be similarlyfinite. Even tropical fisheries have a finite number of fish, and there mustbe limits to the amount of fish caught.

2. Since fisheries are finite, not everyone can make a profit out of it.Participation in fisheries also has to be finite, which means that access tocapture fisheries must be limited.

3. Even if access and participation are limited, fishermen can stilloverfish their fisheries. There are many examples of limited accessfisheries that have either implicit or explicit limits on total catches(total allowable catches or TACs) and are overfished, over capacitated, andunprofitable. Thus, it is not enough to limit participation and catch; therealso has to be a sharing mechanism that determines clearly who getswhat.

In addition, there are two more lessons increasingly being understood byfishermen, policy makers, and fisheries managers. First is that centrallyimposed, command and control regulatory regimes are not compatible withcommercial forces that exist in fisheries. Indeed, command and control schedulesincrease fishing costs for fishermen and motivate them to catch more fish,either legally or, in desperation, illegally.

ABSTRACT

In the last three decades the structure of demand and supply of fish haschanged dramatically. Global demand has risen rapidly, matched by productiongrowth, mainly from aquaculture, along with increased global trade. Higherdemand is driven by rising incomes and populations. Increases in fish supplywere made possible by technical change. Global trade is concentrated onexports of high value fish from developing Asia to developed countries.Projections of future demand and supply in Asia indicate the following: a)demand for fish will keep rising but the species mix may change; b)aquaculture can provide significant expansion in production; c) supplygrowth will slow down, leading to an increase in fish prices; and d) withfew exceptions, per capita consumption of fish would continue to rise.Scenario analysis shows that productivity improvement for freshwater fish,which tends to be low value, leads to increases in its consumption,contributing to food security of the poor.

INTRODUCTION

The supply of and demand for fish have changed dramatically during the last threedecades. Global demand for fish has risen rapidly with rising populations andincreasing per capita income. The rise in demand has been met by a rapid growthin production and increased global trade. The fastest growing component isaquaculture, whereas capture fisheries have remained generally stagnant.

Asia is the leading contributor to this expansion accounting for over 63 per centof total fish production, and as much as 90 per cent of all aquaculture output(FAO 2006). During the 1950s and 1960s, capture fish production in Asiaincreased by an average of 6 per cent per annum, but this declined to 3 per centduring the 1970s and 1990s (FAO 2006). In contrast to the declining growth incapture fisheries, aquaculture in the region has been growing rapidly, by about10 per cent per year during the 1950s and 1960s, about 9 per cent during the1970s and 1980s, and over 11 per cent since 1990 (FAO 2006). Aquacultureproduction in Asia has increased from 5.1 per cent of total fish production in1950, to 46 per cent in 2003.