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38670 results in Cambridge Textbooks

Page 1251 of 1934

  • Chapter 13 - Online Research

  • Wendy Heath, Rider University, New Jersey
  • Book:
    Psychology Research Methods
    Published online:
    01 July 2021
    Print publication:
    11 January 2018, pp 305-336

  • Summary

    Do you remember your dreams? Ever dream of flying? Researchers have long been interested in dream content and have generally found that some dream themes, such as flying, are relatively common. Furthermore, these themes have been found to be consistent across various sample populations (see for example, Schredl, Ciric, Götz, & Wittman, 2004). Mathes, Schredl, and Göritz (2014) decided to take this investigation online, to see whether the typical dream themes found by earlier researchers would be reported by a large sample asked about the content of their most recent dreams.

    First Mathes et al. found a large percentage of dreams reported as happening very recently, within the last week (see Table 13.1). The dream themes were generally consistent with what others had found. The 10 most common themes from Mathes et al.'s study are shown in Table 13.2. How many of these have you experienced?

    Mathes et al. are just one of many research teams that have decided to collect data online. The practice is becoming increasingly common. Skitka and Sargis (2006) found that only about 2% of articles in a 2003/2004 sample of American Psychological Association journals used the Internet to collect data. A few years later, Sargis, Skitka, and McKeever (2013) found that an average of 11% of articles in a 2009/2010 sample of journals used Internet methodology. In fact, Internet research was present in 16% of the 2009/2010 articles in the top-tier social psychology journal Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. What was considered a “new methodological frontier” in 2005 (Skitka & Sargis, 2005, p. 1) is rapidly becoming mainstream.

    In this chapter we'll look at examples of online research, the ethics of using the Internet for data collection, and the advantages and disadvantages of collecting data online. We will also discuss how to prepare a survey and look at an experiment for online data collection.

  • Preface and acknowledgments

  • Michael Sheetz, Columbia University, New York, Hanry Yu, National University of Singapore
  • Book:
    The Cell as a Machine
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    11 January 2018, pp vii-x

  • Summary

    The motivation for this book is to provide an approach for understanding and integrating the complex functions of cells that shape tissues and drive growth and differentiation. Correlative information in the catalogs of DNA sequences, mRNA levels, interactomes, and biochemical reactions involved in complex cellular functions provides an insufficient understanding. Having the parts list of a complex machine does not enable one to assemble that machine, much less to understand how it works. In contrast, a bioengineering approach that focuses on the physical aspects of cells and tissues provides only a part of the function. A detailed engineering diagram of the steps involved and how the physical parameters relate to the biochemical functions is needed to understand most cell functions. For example, the biochemical reactions involved in the uncontrolled cell proliferation of cancer cells are known, as are the physical behaviors of tumor cells, but how physical signals from the cell environment are integrated with the biochemistry of growth is not known. In normal cells, physical feedback from matrix rigidity and morphology controls normal cell growth, whereas in cancer cells, those same parameters are misread, resulting in uncontrolled growth. By considering the reverse engineering of complex cell functions as a problem similar to reverse engineering a complex automobile, it should be possible to understand cellular functions.

    The premise of this book is that cells are small, self-replicating machines that exploit fundamental physical and physical–chemical principles of mesoscale objects to pass on the DNA of the organism that they form. From the revolution in molecular biology, we know the sequences of many genomes, as well as the sequences of the mRNAs in many specific cell types, which identify the proteins that are present. Further, we know many of the mutations that correlate with specific genetic diseases or altered phenotypes. Thus, we possess a cellular parts list. Fortunately, there are now ways to measure subcellular forces, protein positions at the nanometer level, and protein dynamics. By coupling those tools with real-time observations of cell functions, it will be possible to determine the steps in very complex functions.

    Our approach is to model the cell as a complex machine that has been selected for robustness over many millions of years.

  • 13 - DNA Packaging for Information Retrieval and Propagation

  • from Part II - Design and operation of complex functions
  • Michael Sheetz, Columbia University, New York, Hanry Yu, National University of Singapore
  • Book:
    The Cell as a Machine
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    11 January 2018, pp 291-307

  • Summary

    If stretched out, the double-stranded DNA in a human cell nucleus would be almost 2 m in length. The complete DNA is packaged in a nucleus of 7–9 μm in diameter with histones and associated proteins. During the cell cycle, the DNA is available for transcription and replication, which will cause supercoiling and strand crossovers. In mammalian nuclei, the negatively charged DNA strands are first wound around a 6 nm, positively charged histone core. This forms a basic structure known as a nucleosome. Further compaction sees nucleosomes organized sometimes into 30 nm solenoids, which are subsequently condensed into looped chromatin structures. Dynamics in the solenoids allows DNA binding proteins to access the DNA strands on their surface. Despite the lack of observable nuclear movements in the light microscope, the nucleus is a hotbed of activity. For example, there is considerable evidence to indicate that DNA strands move through polymerizing enzymes and are scanned by other proteins. The nucleosomes are actively positioned by mechanoenzymes and although not fully understood, chromatin condensation at the core of chromosomes is known to be an energy-dependent process. In surface loop regions of chromatin, there is active transcription and recent studies indicate that chromatin is organized as flexible strings of uncondensed nucleosomes. Thus, inactive regions are hidden inside and active regions are on the outside of chromosomes.

    Much More DNA than in Genes

    The DNA sequence is often described as being the blueprint for the organism. However, this blueprint includes plans for self-repair and the mechanisms for avoiding damage from environmental challenges such as high temperature. As a result, there is considerable complexity in how the genetic information is propagated, as well as how the necessary portions are robustly read and transcribed. Some aspects of DNA structure and processing are understood, such as the checks that ensure only a single copy of the DNA is made in the S phase of the cell cycle. However, the roles of many features are not clear. For example, the majority of human DNA does not encode human genes that can be translated into proteins. Although normally silent, nearly 25% of the genome encodes for viruses that may be activated. In addition, there are large stretches of repetitive DNA sequences with no known purpose.

  • Chapter 8 - Experimentation with One Independent Variable

  • Wendy Heath, Rider University, New Jersey
  • Book:
    Psychology Research Methods
    Published online:
    01 July 2021
    Print publication:
    11 January 2018, pp 183-210

  • Summary

    Imagine you are a female college student participating in an experiment and your task is to taste cookies and discuss them with a male study participant. Now imagine that after this task is over, the other participant asks you for your phone number. Do you provide it?

    Guéguen, Jacob, and Lamy (2010) were, in fact, quite curious about whether female participants would provide their phone numbers (they didn't really care what people thought of the cookies – that was just a way to get the participants to talk to each other). Here's what Guéguen et al. did and what they found. They randomly assigned female participants to two groups, and they found that participants in one of the groups were almost twice as likely as participants in the other group to provide their phone numbers. What was different about these two groups?

    In fact, everything was the same for these two groups of females except for one thing. The one difference between the groups was that Guéguen et al. varied the type of music (romantic, neutral) playing in the background when the female college students were waiting for the study to begin. Those who heard the romantic music were almost twice as likely to provide their phone number as were those who heard the neutral music. It was the type of music that caused the difference in responding.

    How can we know the type of music caused people to respond differently to a request for a phone number? You're about to find out in this chapter about experimentation – the one research technique that allows us to conclude cause and effect. We'll start by examining what makes a study an experiment, and why we can establish cause and effect with it.

    Experimental Design

    Experimental design is the plan or strategy you use when conducting an experiment. To illustrate the relevant terminology we'll start with the simplest kind of experimental design: experiments with one independent variable.

    When conducting the simplest kind of experiment, researchers manipulate (vary) one variable, called the independent variable, and observe the effects of that manipulation on a response measure called the dependent variable. The independent variable is considered to be the cause, and the dependent variable is considered to be the effect.

  • 16 - How to Approach a Coordinated Function: Cell Rigidity-sensing and Force Generation across Length Scales

  • from Part III - Coordination of complex functions
  • Michael Sheetz, Columbia University, New York, Hanry Yu, National University of Singapore
  • Book:
    The Cell as a Machine
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    11 January 2018, pp 343-363

  • Summary

    Having discussed specific complex functions in a cell, it is good to understand how a cell integrates them when carrying out a specific process. This will be done in this chapter using fibroblast spreading and adhesion formation as an example. Before this, however, we will recap some of the fundamental concepts discussed in Chapters 1–4. At a whole-cell level, there are many complex functions that we would like to understand in more detail. However, it is difficult to isolate an individual function from the multitude of alternative functions that modify the function of interest. Isolating individual complex functions is made easier by standardizing the in vitro conditions in which cells are growing, so as to cut down on the number of uncontrolled variables. The cells should be synchronized to start from a well-defined state, rather than an array of states. The function of interest must then be followed, from initiation to a later stage, as this can enable the complete sequence of events to be analyzed. At present, this approach has only been used for a handful of complex functions in mammalian cells at the single cell level. By better defining these few functions, however, new paradigms have been provided in which to consider other established functions. Clathrin-dependent endocytosis and cell–matrix adhesion formation are two complex functions where many of the proteins involved are known, and a rough sequence of events has been described in some special circumstances. Those circumstances include specification of the cell environment, cell state, and several other factors that then enable reproducible observations of the cell functions. In the case of cell binding to matrix, there are rapid transitions between distinct cell states. This provides a good example of how cell state changes are needed for complex functions, but they complicate our understanding of the process. In a general context, the descriptions of complex cell functions read like the engineering descriptions of complex functions in factories.

    At a practical level, the analysis of functions in single cells requires a number of conditions to be met and we will see in a special case how that can be done. In Chapter 3, complex cellular functions were described as multistep processes that employed many different functional modules. For complex cellular functions to operate under the wide variety of cellular conditions, they need to adapt to the changes in cell behavior that will follow environmental challenges.

  • 8 - International Dispute Settlement in the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea

  • from PART II - INTERNATIONAL DISPUTE SETTLEMENT IN PARTICULAR FIELDS
  • Yoshifumi Tanaka, University of Copenhagen
  • Book:
    The Peaceful Settlement of International Disputes
    Published online:
    21 June 2018
    Print publication:
    11 January 2018, pp 229-274

  • Summary

    Main Issues

    Generally, the effectiveness of mechanisms for the peaceful settlement of international disputes can be said to rely on a sound balance between voluntary and compulsory procedures. Thus the reconciliation of these elements should be an important issue when establishing mechanisms of international dispute settlement. The dispute settlement system in the LOSC provides a useful insight into this issue. This chapter will seek to examine the law and procedure of the dispute settlement system in the LOSC. In particular, the following issues will be discussed:

  • (i) What are the principal features of the procedures of international dispute settlement in the LOSC?

  • (ii) What is the significance of the compulsory procedures for dispute settlement in the LOSC and what are their limitations?

  • (iii) What is the difference between the ICJ and ITLOS?

  • (iv) What is the role of arbitral tribunals under the LOSC in the settlement of disputes concerning marine affairs?

  • (v) Do the multiple judicial bodies set out in the LOSC create a fragmentation of international law?

    • INTRODUCTION

    The ever-increasing use of the oceans necessitates international rules regulating various human activities at sea. The body of international rules that bind States and other subjects of international law in their marine affairs is called the international law of the sea. A global legal framework for governing the oceans was established by the LOSC, adopted in 1982. The Convention that comprises 320 Articles and nine Annexes covers marine issues in a quasi-comprehensive manner. As the LOSC represents a complex balance of interests of various actors, however, international disputes are likely to arise with regard to its interpretation and application. Thus the establishment of the system of international dispute settlement is crucial in its implementation. The system of international dispute settlement under the Convention is characterised by three principal features.

    The first noteworthy feature is that the dispute settlement system is set out as an integral part of the Convention. In this regard, the LOSC shows a clear contrast with the Optional Protocol Concerning Compulsory Settlement of Dispute, which was adopted as a distinct treaty at the First United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea in 1958.3 The built-in dispute settlement system, including the compulsory procedures, can be considered as an important tool for securing the integrity of the interpretation and application of the Convention.

  • Chapter 6 - The Giant Planets

  • Edited by David A. Rothery, The Open University, Milton Keynes, Neil McBride, The Open University, Milton Keynes, Iain Gilmour, The Open University, Milton Keynes
  • Open University
  • Book:
    An Introduction to the Solar System
    Published online:
    11 May 2019
    Print publication:
    11 January 2018, pp 207-250

  • Summary

    Introduction

    The previous chapter dealt with objects with definite surfaces - the terrestrial planets. We turn now to objects for which there is no discernible surface and where the greater part of the object (possibly all) is fluid (i.e. gas or liquid). These are the giant planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune (Figure 6.1).

    We start by considering the overall structure of these planets. Much of the detailed evidence has come from instruments on board spacecraft, and it is hoped that even more information will be gathered by future missions. However, Earthbased instruments are by no means obsolete in this field and observations by space telescopes (in orbit around the Earth) have provided much valuable data. Groundbased observations were necessary as a starting point for data collection by the spacecraft. One advantage of Earth-based and space-telescope observations is that they can be used to study changes in a planet's appearance over a long time (in the case of Jupiter, hundreds of years), whereas fly-by and lander spacecraft observe for only a limited time.

    The first fly-bys of Jupiter and Saturn were achieved by two probes of NASA's Pioneer series in the 1970s (Appendix Table A7). Much more data came from NASA's Voyager probes, of which Voyager 2 is the only spacecraft to have visited Uranus or Neptune (Box 6.1). In addition there have been three giant planet orbiters (Galileo, Cassini and Juno, Box 6.1) plus a useful fly-by of Jupiter by NASA's Plutobound New Horizons probe in 2007.

    We have a fairly accurate picture of the composition and structure of the outer layers or atmospheres of these planets, because we can detect and positively identify molecules in them. Our knowledge of the interiors is less certain and is based on indirect measurements and modelling. As none of the four planets has an accessible surface (if they have any surfaces at all), we do not know where the base of the atmosphere is. The radii of the planets are therefore often defined as the distance from the centre of the planet to the 1 bar pressure level (1 bar being approximately the pressure of the Earth's atmosphere at sea-level).

  • 12 - The Quest for Peace in International Law

  • from PART II - INTERNATIONAL DISPUTE SETTLEMENT IN PARTICULAR FIELDS
  • Yoshifumi Tanaka, University of Copenhagen
  • Book:
    The Peaceful Settlement of International Disputes
    Published online:
    21 June 2018
    Print publication:
    11 January 2018, pp 382-395

  • Summary

    Main Issues

    In a narrow sense, sustainable peace in the international community means absence of armed conflicts and disputes endangering international peace and security. While the peaceful settlement of international disputes is a prerequisite to achieve sustainable peace in a narrow sense, it is not sufficient to achieve this goal. Sustainable peace in a narrow sense relies on the interlinkage of three elements: peaceful settlement of international disputes, the prohibition of the threat or use of force secured by an international security system, and disarmament. The three pillars can be regarded as essential conditions for peace. The role of the peaceful settlement of international disputes in international relations must be examined in connection to the other two elements. Focusing on the interlinkage of the three pillars, this chapter will seek to consider the role of the peaceful settlement of international disputes in a broad context. In particular, the following issues will be discussed:

  • (i) What is the interrelationship between peaceful settlement of international disputes, the prohibition of the use or threat of force and disarmament?

  • (ii) What are the problems associated with the interaction of the three elements?

  • (iii) How is it possible to strengthen the interlinkage of the three elements to achieve sustainable peace?

    • INTRODUCTION

    ‘Peace’ is an elusive concept and it is difficult to define it a priori in abstract. The Preamble of the UN Charter appears to contain two categories of components of peace. The first category relates to components necessary to maintain peace in a narrow sense which means absence of armed conflicts and disputes endangering international peace and security. This category includes two elements that are closely interlinked: the prohibition of armed force and the maintenance of international peace and security. The second category of components is those necessary to achieve peace in a broad sense which refers to the situation where human rights are adequately protected and all people can promote economic and social progress. These components embodied in the Preamble include: the protection of ‘fundamental human rights’, promotion of social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom, and the promotion of the economic and social advancement of all peoples. Given that a healthy environment provides a foundation for all life, it is also necessary to add the protection of the environment as a component of peace in a broad sense.

Page 1251 of 1934