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38626 results in Cambridge Textbooks

Page 1274 of 1932

  • Chapter 12 - Case study: Wilderness School, Adelaide, South Australia

    • By Heather De Blasio, Director of Learning and Teacher Excellence at Wilderness School, an independent, non-denominational school in Adelaide, South Australia., Michael Francis, Coordinator of Assessment, Learning and Teaching (Secondary) at the University of Melbourne and a teaching specialist at the Assessment Research Centre.
  • Patrick Griffin, University of Melbourne
  • Book:
    Assessment for Teaching
    Published online:
    17 August 2019
    Print publication:
    18 October 2017, pp 266-280

  • Summary

    Learning Objectives

    In this chapter you will learn to:

  • • understand some of the challenges, solutions and rewards that teachers and schools may encounter when working with the Assessment for Teaching model

  • • identify different ways in which teachers may use developmental assessment rubrics and judgement-based assessments to locate and use evidence of student learning to inform teaching during the process of learning

  • • grasp how students can be empowered to use developmental assessment rubrics to identify evidence of learning and current achievement and set specific learning goals to improve performance.

    • This chapter documents how one school has approached the task of introducing and implementing the Assessment for Teaching model and is designed to support schools considering the adoption of this model. It explains how the school leadership team undertook the process of planning, providing time, resources and professional learning to support and build teachers’ capacity to use assessment rubrics to search for evidence of learning. This approach was designed to inform scaffolded teaching targeted at what students are ready to learn. The chapter also identifies the positive impact of the approach on both teachers’ professional practice and student outcomes.

    Introduction

    Wilderness School is an independent, non-denominational day and boarding school for girls (Early Learning to Year 12) bordering the parklands of the central business district of Adelaide, South Australia. Founded by the Brown sisters in 1884, Wilderness is a non-selective school welcoming students with diverse learning needs. Girls from local, rural, interstate and international locations make up the student population of approximately 750.

    Wilderness has a long tradition of providing a high-quality education for girls. The Year 12 results for 2015 are a typical example of this. Of the student cohort, 70 per cent were placed in the top 10 per cent, 57 per cent in the top 5 per cent, and 18 per cent in the top 1 per cent of Year 12 students nationally. Results in the National Assessment Program – Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) present a similar picture. Wilderness has regularly been the best-performing school in South Australia in a number of domains and year levels, as well as figuring in the top 50 nationally, as reported independently in The Australian (Balogh 2016).

  • Chapter 5 - Judgement-based assessment

    • By Patrick Griffin, University of Melbourne, Michael Francis, Coordinator of Assessment, Learning and Teaching (Secondary) at the University of Melbourne and a teaching specialist at the Assessment Research Centre., Pam Robertson, Research Fellow at the Assessment Research Centre, University of Melbourne.
  • Patrick Griffin, University of Melbourne
  • Book:
    Assessment for Teaching
    Published online:
    17 August 2019
    Print publication:
    18 October 2017, pp 90-112

  • Summary

    Learning Objectives

    In this chapter you will learn to:

  • • identify the strengths and weaknesses of judgement-based assessment

  • • understand how adopting a developmental assessment framework can maximise the strengths of judgement-based assessment so it can be used to better inform teaching decisions

  • • build a developmental assessment framework that describes the domain, strands and capabilities to be learned and taught in a unit of work.

    • Many forms of assessment have predetermined right and wrong answers. Familiar examples are multiple-choice questions and matching activities; there are also mathematics exercises or short-answer tasks for which there is no room for judgement. When a teacher is marking these forms of assessment, there can be no doubt about whether a student has answered correctly or incorrectly. Other kinds of assessment, such as essays and art folios, require different assessment methods. For these, there is no predetermined answer and teachers must use their professional judgement to assess the quality of the work. These assessments are sometimes dismissed as subjective because they rely on the teacher's judgement, but there are ways for this kind of assessment to be formalised and codified to increase confidence in the subjective judgement. This chapter explains the process via which this can be achieved.

    Introduction

    The terms ‘objective’ and ‘subjective’ in the context of assessment refer to the manner in which student work is judged and how records of the assessment are created and interpreted. Assessments are referred to as ‘objective’ if they can be routinely marked as correct or incorrect, regardless of who makes the judgement. This is generally applied to multiple-choice questions, or questions for which there is only one correct answer. Subjective assessments involve judgement in order to distinguish between responses of different quality. In general, they require an assessment in which the teacher weighs up or judges the value or quality of a performance or an answer and differentiates between higher- and lower-quality student work. This process of weighing up the quality of a performance is used in this chapter to develop a series of criteria that will help teachers improve these subjective judgements.

    In fact, there are no purely objective assessments. All assessments can be classified as qualitatively subjective – it is a matter of where the judgement takes place in the process of planning, implementing, coding and scoring assessments.

  • Chapter 1 - Communicating with children, young people and their families

  • Elizabeth Forster, Griffith University, Queensland, Jennifer Fraser, University of Sydney
  • Book:
    Paediatric Nursing Skills for Australian Nurses
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    18 October 2017, pp 1-16

  • Summary

    Introduction

    Communication is the cornerstone of therapeutic relationships between nurses, children, young people and their families. Communication skills are foundational to the work we do in acute care and community settings (Levetown, 2008). As an Australian Registered Nurse, your relationship with children in your care is normally mediated through their family or carers, so the importance of communicating well with all members of the family unit cannot be under-estimated. Good communication develops the foundations for child and family-centred care (Lindly, Zuckerman & Mistry, 2017), a model of care that is deeply embedded in paediatric nursing practice and that is underpinned by the assumption that children, families and health professionals work in partnership, with each party having an equal voice (Shields, 2010). Poor communication generates fear, anxiety and stress, and is a leading cause of dissatisfaction with health services.

    A child's way of communicating depends on a range of factors. This includes their chronological age in the first instance, but also achievement of developmental milestones. This development is influenced by their biology, temperament, family and wider environment. Nurses need to have a good understanding of the cognitive and communication stages of childhood development to develop a set of skills that will enable them to communicate effectively with children of all ages, as well as the adults in the family. In this chapter, important considerations for communicating with children will be presented, together with techniques needed to communicate effectively with children of different developmental stages and their families.

    The child's voice in healthcare

    Within the Australian healthcare system, children, young people and their families can expect to be treated with dignity and respect. The care they receive is family-centred – that is, the family unit is respected for its values and beliefs, including those relating to health and healthcare. Shared decision-making requires a commitment from the family as well as the nurse, and good communication skills are foundational to the success of such a model of care. Communicating with parents about the decisions they make regarding their child's health and healthcare may seem straightforward, but there is another element of family- centred care to which we must pay attention.

  • Chapter 5 - Adolescent nursing skills

  • Elizabeth Forster, Griffith University, Queensland, Jennifer Fraser, University of Sydney
  • Book:
    Paediatric Nursing Skills for Australian Nurses
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    18 October 2017, pp 81-100

  • Summary

    Introduction

    This chapter will address the developmental needs of adolescents, the risks and challenges to which they are exposed and the key health and wellbeing issues with which they must contend. You will learn the skills required to engage with adolescents and their families, and explore an evidence-based psychosocial health assessment framework that facilitates the identification of risk factors, specific healthcare needs, individual strengths and available supports. More focused assessment techniques for eliciting concerns regarding mental health and wellbeing will also be outlined.

    Adolescent development

    Adolescence is not only a period of rapid growth and physiological change; it marks the transition between the dependence of childhood and the independence of adulthood through a process of individuation, socialisation and emotional maturation. Adolescents are predisposed to experimentation and participation in high-risk behaviours during this lifespan stage, which can impact on short- and long-term health outcomes as well as their response to healthcare intervention.

    Change during adolescence involves physical, cognitive and social and emotional maturation across three sub-phases: early adolescence (10 to 13 years), middle adolescence (14 to 17 years) and late adolescence (18 to 20 years). Early adolescence generally is characterised by adjustment to the physical and emotional changes associated with puberty; middle adolescence entails transition to a dominant peer orientation and a strong need for identity to affirm self-image; and late adolescence involves transition into adulthood, including the assumption of adult work roles and relationships (Curtis, 2015). The age ranges are a guide only, as adolescent maturation can be influenced by genetics, gender and the socioeconomic and cultural contexts in which young people are raised (Blakemore, 2012; Curtis, 2015; Day et al., 2016; McBride et al., 2011).

    Developmental needs of adolescents

    Physical needs

    Nutrition

    Adolescents need to consume a wide variety of nutritious foods. Unfortunately, their diets often include excess fat, sugar, caffeine and sodium, and insufficient nutrient-dense foods such as fresh fruits and vegetables, and calcium-rich foods such as dairy products. Poor dietary intake and low fibre content mean that young people are at risk of being overweight or obese, as well as iron deficiency due to their increased blood volume and muscle mass during this period of growth and development, with girls particularly vulnerable due to menstruation.

  • Chapter 2 - Skills for protecting children

  • Elizabeth Forster, Griffith University, Queensland, Jennifer Fraser, University of Sydney
  • Book:
    Paediatric Nursing Skills for Australian Nurses
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    18 October 2017, pp 17-36

  • Summary

    Introduction

    All children need a safe and nurturing environment in which to grow and reach their full potential. Yet parenting can be challenging for some families, where there are limited resources to meet the needs of their children. The transition to parenthood and the demands of young children during periods of rapid developmental change place a strain on families and the resources available to create safe and nurturing environments for their children. While all families experience difficulties with parenting from time to time, some families with poor social, emotional and physical health will need additional support to provide a safe environment for their children.

    Parents who are isolated, or who grew up in social isolation, can find parenting and family life overwhelming. As individuals, we are socialised to the models of parenting to which we have been exposed, and they are not easy to change. Parents may not know how to provide an optimal home environment for their children to grow and learn. They may not understand how to communicate with, or to ‘tune in’ to, the needs of their children. Parenting can be challenging when the children are well and developing normally. If the children become sick or are developmentally compromised, parenting can become overwhelming and unmanageable.

    This chapter will focus on those nursing skills known to assist families to provide safe and supportive environments for their children. As you develop these skills, you will become more capable at coordinating care for families with complex needs, be able to identify child-protection concerns, and be able to create supportive collegial relationships that work across the health and other sectors as a coordinated approach to protecting children. These skills will become part of your planning and intervention with families, and will include appropriate assessment and diagnosis. The effectiveness of interventions must be reviewed regularly, and care should be adjusted accordingly. Documentation is essential, and in your professional practice you must adhere to relevant service, state and professional policies and guidelines.

  • Chapter 8 - Building a development progression

    • By Patrick Griffin, University of Melbourne, Michael Francis, Coordinator of Assessment, Learning and Teaching (Secondary) at the University of Melbourne and a teaching specialist at the Assessment Research Centre.
  • Patrick Griffin, University of Melbourne
  • Book:
    Assessment for Teaching
    Published online:
    17 August 2019
    Print publication:
    18 October 2017, pp 161-197

  • Summary

    Learning Objectives

    In this chapter you will learn to:

  • • link curriculum and resources to assessment and reporting

  • • understand the theoretical basis on which criterion-referenced frameworks are built

  • • understand the theoretical basis on which students are located to levels on a criterion-referenced framework

  • • conduct a pairwise comparison of criteria

  • • build a criterion-referenced framework through deconstruction of curriculum

  • • build a progression for units of work and detailed learning outcomes.

    • This chapter shows how criterion-referenced frameworks are derived. The first section describes the process of derivation using a list of ordered skills produced by item response theory (IRT). The second section shows how a similar list of ordered skills can be produced using Thurstone's (1927) method of pairwise comparison. Two remaining sections form the balance of the chapter. A major feature of this chapter is a case study from the national TAFE-delivered Vocational Education and Training (TVET) sector illustrating criterion-referenced frameworks and pairwise comparison in practice.

    Introduction

    Often curriculum refers to the academic content taught in a formal course or program. The term ‘curriculum’ typically refers to the knowledge and skills students are expected to acquire. It also refers to standards they are expected to meet, the lessons taught, the teaching materials used in a course and the assessments used to evaluate student learning. UNESCO describes the term thus:

    Curriculum can be envisaged from different perspectives. What societies envisage as important teaching and learning constitutes the ‘intended’ curriculum. Since it is usually presented in official documents, it may be also called the ‘written’ and/or ‘official’ curriculum. However, at classroom level this intended curriculum may be altered through a range of complex classroom interactions, and what is delivered can be considered the ‘implemented’ curriculum. What learners really learn (i.e. what can be assessed and can be demonstrated as learning outcomes/learner competencies) constitutes the ‘achieved’ or ‘learned’ curriculum.

    (UNESCO 2017)

    The achieved curriculum is a focus of this chapter. In addition to learning outcomes achieved, curriculum theory points to a ‘hidden’ curriculum: that is, the unintended development of personal values and beliefs of learners, teachers and communities; the unexpected impact of a curriculum; and unforeseen aspects of a learning process. Those who develop the intended curriculum should have all these different dimensions of the curriculum in mind.

  • Chapter 9 - Neurological nursing skills

  • Elizabeth Forster, Griffith University, Queensland, Jennifer Fraser, University of Sydney
  • Book:
    Paediatric Nursing Skills for Australian Nurses
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    18 October 2017, pp 169-183

  • Summary

    Introduction

    Paediatric neurological conditions encompass disorders involving the brain, spinal cord, nerves and muscles, including epilepsy, cerebral palsy, meningitis, genetic/metabolic diseases and muscular dystrophy (ANZCNS, 2016). These conditions often require both acute care in hospital and ongoing support in the community, and paediatric nurses need to be equipped with a variety of skills to provide optimal care for these children and their families. Paediatric nursing skills relating to seizure management and the management of paediatric patients with problems related to cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) drainage will be discussed in this chapter.

    Some paediatric neurological conditions interfere with normal CSF drainage in the brain, and this can lead to the accumulation of CSF and raised intracranial pressure which has damaging consequences for cerebral perfusion and the child's brain. Skills will be outlined that relate to long-term management of abnormalities of CSF drainage – that is, ventriculoperitoneal (VP) shunts – as well as short-term management and monitoring of cerebral perfusion in paediatric patients with external ventricular drains.

    Managing paediatric seizures

    Seizure activity in children can be sudden and frightening. Rapid response and treatment are essential to terminate the seizure and protect the child from secondary injury. Seizures can be caused from trauma to the brain, such as hypoxic ischaemia and cerebral haemorrhage, raised intracranial pressure or metabolic disturbances including diabetic ketoacidosis or electrolyte imbalances, infections (intracranial infections such as meningitis, encephalitis, abscess or sepsis), malformations and epilepsy (Hellström-Westas, Boylan & Ågren, 2015; Lawton & Deuble, 2016).

    In paediatric patients, seizures are often considered in terms of being febrile or non-febrile. Febrile seizures are also referred to as febrile convulsions.

    A febrile convulsion is the most common cause of convulsions in paediatric patients, and usually occurs between 6 months and 6 years of age, with the most common age of presentation being 18 months of age. The fever is usually above 38ºC and may be caused by childhood infections such as otitis media, or tooth, throat or respiratory tract infection (Millichap & Millichap, 2016; Paul, Kirkham & Shirt, 2015).

  • Chapter 4 - Conducting assessments: Making sure the evidence of learning is interpretable

    • By Masa Pavlovic, has worked in the field of education assessment, test development, data management and analysis, neurosciences and software development for the past 10 years., Nafisa Awwal, holds a Bachelor of Computer Science and completed her Master of Information Management and Systems at Monash University., Patrick Griffin, University of Melbourne, B. M. Monjurul Alom, computer programmer and platform developer in the Assessment Research Centre, University of Melbourne.
  • Patrick Griffin, University of Melbourne
  • Book:
    Assessment for Teaching
    Published online:
    17 August 2019
    Print publication:
    18 October 2017, pp 77-89

  • Summary

    Learning Objectives

    In this chapter you will learn to:

  • • understand the role of developmental frameworks in developing and conducting assessment for teaching

  • • conduct assessments, looking at a specific example of an assessment in an online environment and controlling for distracting influences

  • • target assessments

  • • recognise the need to confirm assessment results with other sources of evidence.

    • This chapter introduces the administration and use of assessment for teaching. It emphasises the importance of correctly targeting assessment to maximise the information available for both teachers and students. The approach of using assessments within a developmental framework requires a significant shift in thinking for teachers and students. Assessment in this context demands a clear understanding of its purposes as the identification of a level of readiness to learn in all students and the use of this to make teaching decisions about appropriate interventions. This chapter expands on some of the ideas discussed in Chapter 1 on the use of ‘skills, not scores’ – ideas that contrast assessment for teaching with summative testing. The chapter provides practical examples of how to maximise each student's opportunity to demonstrate their skills and knowledge.

    The classroom teacher doesn't always have the time or training to construct formal psychometric summative tests. This chapter reviews a range of assessment strategies teachers use in their search for evidence of learning and student growth.

    Introduction

    The focus of this chapter is the use of developmental assessment and issues related to administration of assessments and interpretation of data, to support the planning of targeted teaching strategies for classroom use. It builds on ideas introduced in Chapter 3 where we discussed developmental learning. Teachers need to know about the use and interpretation of assessment data if they are to use data to inform teaching.

    Planning administration: Why do we recommend testing twice a year?

    Testing is typically undertaken at the beginning of a school year to establish a benchmark level of achievement for the students. It also enables the teachers, at the beginning of the year, to identify the levels for intervention for each student and for the team leaders to bring this information to a team leaders’ workshop a few weeks after the first test.

  • Chapter 9 - Guttman Analysis

    • By Patrick Griffin, University of Melbourne, Michael Francis, Coordinator of Assessment, Learning and Teaching (Secondary) at the University of Melbourne and a teaching specialist at the Assessment Research Centre., Pam Robertson, Research Fellow at the Assessment Research Centre, University of Melbourne.
  • Patrick Griffin, University of Melbourne
  • Book:
    Assessment for Teaching
    Published online:
    17 August 2019
    Print publication:
    18 October 2017, pp 198-225

  • Summary

    Learning Objectives

    In this chapter you will learn to:

  • • generate, analyse and link a Guttman Analysis to the zone of proximal development (ZPD)

  • • use both objective and judgement-based assessment data to identify ZPDs

  • • explore for anomalies in the data

  • • use Guttman table data to target teaching

  • • examine the implications of assessment data analysis for classroom organisation to enhance targeted teaching.

    • This chapter introduces the Guttman Analysis, an effective tool for grouping students based on demonstrated skills. The chapter provides a step-by-step process through which teachers can organise data from either objective or judgement based assessment tasks into a readily interpretable and visual form. The chapter shows teachers how to interpret data to evaluate the reliability of an assessment task, both at a general and item level. The implications for this sort of analysis are considered, including the scenario where an assessment task does not capture skills within a student's ZPD. Finally, teachers are introduced to the process of using data to target teaching through the formation of instructional groups based on students’ ZPDs.

    Introduction

    The developmental model of learning was introduced in Chapter 3. A core feature of this model is the process of interpreting students’ zones of proximal development (ZPDs) in relation to a progression of increasing complexity. Teachers can locate students’ ZPDs using externally generated data, such as standardised test assessments, or they can use their own classroom data to generate a Guttman Analysis. Either way, teachers are equipped with information that can be used to target teaching and maximise student learning.

    Analysing externally generated student data

    In Chapter 3 we illustrated an externally generated student report based on the ARCOTS test data. The learning readiness report is generated by the ARCOTS system in real time and locates a student at a level on a developmental progression represented by the black bar that it links to a very brief (nutshell) description of the skills a student is ‘ready to learn’ (see Figure 9.1). It is not an achievement level but rather an estimation of the ZPD. The student's achievement level is below this point – it represents what they have already learned. As explained in Chapter 3, the ZPD is where teaching needs to be targeted to maximise student progress.

  • Chapter 2 - Collaborative teaching teams

    • By Patrick Griffin, University of Melbourne, Michael Francis, Coordinator of Assessment, Learning and Teaching (Secondary) at the University of Melbourne and a teaching specialist at the Assessment Research Centre., Pam Robertson, Research Fellow at the Assessment Research Centre, University of Melbourne.
  • Patrick Griffin, University of Melbourne
  • Book:
    Assessment for Teaching
    Published online:
    17 August 2019
    Print publication:
    18 October 2017, pp 26-42

  • Summary

    Learning Objectives

    In this chapter you will learn to:

  • • understand the roles and processes of collaborative teaching teams (CTTs)

  • • identify the process from measurement to policy development in which CTTs may participate

  • • understand the CTT cycle

  • • identify the skills necessary for successful CTTs.

    • This chapter introduces the elements of the successful CTT: collaboration, challenge, check and celebrate. It explores how the CTT supports and enhances assessment for learning and contributes to school policy. The chapter outlines what is meant by collaboration and explains its four characteristics: group members realising a shared goal; members each making a unique contribution; members learning to accept their dependence on other members of the group; and members recognising the benefit of having colleagues contributing in areas that they cannot. We also explore how members of the CTT need to develop their own personal social skills in resolving issues affecting the teaching team.

    Introduction

    Strong and skillful collaborative teaching team (CTT) leadership is needed to embed the practices discussed in this book. New teachers, especially, need support from experienced team leaders. New teachers need to understand the leadership framework in which they are working. It is the team leader who will model the desired behaviours and help scaffold the learning of individual teaching team members so they can become more effective members of the team and, as a result, more effective teachers. The team leader is often the link between the team and the school's leadership and is therefore in the position to lobby for the interests of the team. It may be necessary for the leader to negotiate more time for meetings, access to particular resources, or specific professional development opportunities. As a champion for the team, the leader must also ensure that the team structure has a place in policy formation within the school. Without adept team leadership, it is impossible to develop a team whose synergy makes a substantial difference to the learning of all of its students.

    The successful collaborative teaching team

    Behind the approach of successful collaborative teams is an ongoing willingness to question and challenge the impacts of practice. Members of CTTs can best serve each other by questioning their own teaching practices and those of their fellow team members but the challenge must be in terms of change in student learning–related behaviour.

  • Annex 1 - School leadership and assessment

    • By Michael Francis, Coordinator of Assessment, Learning and Teaching (Secondary) at the University of Melbourne and a teaching specialist at the Assessment Research Centre., Patrick Griffin, University of Melbourne
  • Patrick Griffin, University of Melbourne
  • Book:
    Assessment for Teaching
    Published online:
    17 August 2019
    Print publication:
    18 October 2017, pp 281-299

  • Summary

    This annex has been written explicitly for busy school leaders who would like to get an overview of the Assessment for Teaching approach before tackling the level of detail provided in the book as a whole. It summarises the theoretical basis and the practical application of the program described in the book, spelling out the nature of the support needed and the responsibilities to be exercised if the program is to succeed.

    Introduction

    The primary reason for teaching is to facilitate learning. The primary reason for schools to exist is to maximise that learning. The primary role of the school leader is to ensure that this maximisation occurs.

    In a study on evidence-based teaching of literacy – the Literacy Assessment Project – conducted by the Assessment Research Centre (ARC) in the Graduate School of Education at the University of Melbourne in partnership with the Catholic Education Office Melbourne over a 10-year period, outstanding early results were observed in some schools. The study was designed to test the effectiveness of using evidence to identify the point on a developmental progression at which students were most ready to learn, so that reading comprehension teaching could be targeted to that point. The purpose of the project was to build teachers’ assessment knowledge and skill so they could use assessment data to inform the teaching of literacy. Students were tested at the beginning of the school year to identify their position on a developmental progression and then taught the necessary skills to move along the progression to the next level. This approach represents a reversal of standard teaching practice in which assessment occurs only after instruction is complete. In the standard approach, assessment is for, or of, learning. In this approach, assessment is for teaching.

    In the Literacy Assessment Project, a second testing period later in the school year showed that all students could improve. However, the rate of improvement among students at some schools was higher than at others. At schools where the greatest gains were made, teaching strategies were shared and discussed by teams of teachers who challenged each other to support their teaching practices with evidence. The teachers in these teams brought a range of observations and experiences to their discussions, but they also ensured that their colleagues did not persist with comfortable or familiar practices that were proving to be ineffective.

  • Preface

  • Patrick Griffin, University of Melbourne
  • Book:
    Assessment for Teaching
    Published online:
    17 August 2019
    Print publication:
    18 October 2017, pp xvii-xxii

  • Summary

    About this book

    This is the second edition of the text on assessment for teaching. Like the first edition the content is based on a mixture of teaching and research – it is informed by practice, theory and research in the classroom. It gives teachers what they have requested to improve teaching and learning. Like the first edition, it is not just another book on assessment. Many of you will have read generalised books on assessment, and some of you will even have written them. Patrick Griffin published one in the 1990s. This book is different. It is a clinical approach to assessment and the use of data in the classroom. It is about changing the culture of schools based on the use of assessment data and developing skills among teachers so they can use assessment information to make decisions about targeted teaching intervention. The book introduces a new kind of thinking, though some of the content is not new – note the case study written in 1970 that commences the Introduction.

    The approach propounded here is simple, but it is not simplistic. It is one that demands conceptual reasoning and higher order thinking. In the eight years that the Master of Teaching program has been taught at the University of Melbourne it has developed and matured. We now know that pre-service teachers can cope with this form of assessment and that in-service teachers can also change their practices in the light of it. Over 1500 teachers have participated in the program through online and face-to-face delivery. Over 3000 student teachers have studied the program and many have told us that they secured employment because of their knowledge of this approach to assessment. Many of the 1500 practising teachers who have participated in the online program have testified that it has changed their thinking about the use of assessment data and the way in which it can help teachers to organise classrooms. Of course, some did not change.

    There is no point in adding to the assessment literature based on translating psychometric theory and multiple-choice test design. This is not a book that regurgitates the old ideas about assessment wrapped up in the language of psychometrics. It takes a new approach.

  • Chapter 8 - Pain assessment and management

  • Elizabeth Forster, Griffith University, Queensland, Jennifer Fraser, University of Sydney
  • Book:
    Paediatric Nursing Skills for Australian Nurses
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    18 October 2017, pp 146-168

  • Summary

    Introduction

    Infants, children and young people experiencing acute and chronic illness unfortunately may experience pain as a consequence of the pathophysiology of their illness. Despite efforts to minimise physical and psychological harm, they may also experience pain due to the investigations and treatments they face. As nurses caring for paediatric patients, preventing, assessing and managing pain are clinical priorities, and this chapter will assist you to develop your skills in this important area of practice.

    The consequences of poorly managed pain are significant for the child, family and healthcare agency. Physical and psychological consequences for children who experience pain may include fear, anxiety, the development of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), an increased infection risk and wound-healing complications (Hovde et al., 2012). A variety of barriers exist regarding the provision of effective paediatric pain management, including nurse attitudes and knowledge, a lack of educational preparation and failure to use or administer correctly paediatric pain-assessment tools (Ekim & Ocakci, 2013; Manworren, 2000; Stanley & Pollard, 2013). It is therefore important to develop your skills in relation to paediatric pain assessment and management to ensure effective pain management for your paediatric patients.

    Understanding pain

    Pain is an intrinsic alert system designed to warn the body of danger or a decline in condition. The International Association for Study of Pain (IASP) officially defines pain as ‘an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage’ (IASP, Bogduk & Merskey, 1994). The acknowledgement of both a sensory and emotional experience being involved in the experience of pain necessitates accurate assessment of all factors that contribute to the pain experience for children, both physical and psychosocial (Saul, Peters & Bruce, 2016).

    Nociception

    Pain is generally categorised as either acute or chronic. Acute pain that occurs with a defined incident or actual or impending injury to the tissue is well localised, and subsides with tissue healing (Saul, Peters & Bruce, 2016). Chronic pain persists beyond the expected time for healing and is not consistently attributable to a defined incident (Saul, Peters & Bruce, 2016). Pain is experienced due to the presence of noxious stimuli, which results in the activation of peripheral receptors. The nerve cell endings that transmit the message of pain are called nociceptors, and are found throughout the body.

Page 1274 of 1932