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38649 results in Cambridge Textbooks

Page 1338 of 1933

  • About this Book

  • Olaf Koeneman, Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen, Hedde Zeijlstra, Georg-August-Universität, Göttingen, Germany
  • Book:
    Introducing Syntax
    Published online:
    28 May 2018
    Print publication:
    13 April 2017, pp vii-x

  • Summary

    Introducing Syntax

    Whereas the grammar of English (or other languages) might look like a rather chaotic set of different patterns, syntactic theory has revealed that these patterns can actually be understood as the result of a small number of grammatical operations. Unravelling these is the science of syntax. This textbook describes state-of-the-art syntactic theory by addressing how and why certain combinations of words are ‘proper’ English sentences whereas other combinations are not. What is the mechanism behind that? What grammatical rules does English have and why? How is grammar related to meaning and to how sentences are expressed?

    In this book we guide students through a variety of intriguing puzzles, striking facts and novel ideas, and let them discover the beauty of syntactic theory in both a bottom-up (data-driven) and a top-down (theory-driven) fashion. This book is primarily intended for students for whom this is a first (and hopefully not last) encounter with syntax and/or linguistic theory. We will primarily focus on the important insights that have been achieved in contemporary syntax. Introducing Syntax will offer students all the necessary tools to do this, without going into unnecessary technical detail.

    Introducing Syntax is not the only available textbook on this topic. Why, then, the need for a new one? Introductory courses to (English) syntactic theory generally face three key challenges:

  • • First, syntax (and especially its level of formalisation and abstraction) can quite often be a surprise for students, especially those enrolled in an (English) language and literature/culture programme. The challenge is to make this formal theory accessible and interesting without oversimplifying.

  • • Second, since syntactic theory is formal, students have to learn a number of technical notions. A potential danger is that they learn the technicalities without understanding the insights behind them.

  • • Third, (English) syntactic theory deals with a number of phenomena that have shaped it. Many of these phenomena are part of the canon, and students have to know about them. However, they could be perceived as an arbitrary set of topics. It is a challenge to introduce all of these topics without losing the overall narrative that connects them in a coherent way.

  • 11 - Prosperity and Poverty, 1660-1750

  • John Miller, Queen Mary University of London
  • Book:
    Early Modern Britain, 1450–1750
    Published online:
    12 September 2018
    Print publication:
    13 April 2017, pp 277-302

  • Summary

    TIMELINE

    1651 Navigation Act

    1662 Act of Settlement

    1673 First Corn Law (restrictions on imports, bounties on exports)

    1690s War and bad harvests; food riots and corporations of the poor (England); agricultural depression and emigration (Scotland)

    1697 Act for badging paupers

    1709 Severe harvest failure

    1722 Act prohibiting import of Indian calicoes

    1723 Black Act; Workhouse Act (making possible ‘unions’ of villages)

    Introduction

    The century after 1660 can easily be seen as a period of prosperity and elegance. Many English people enjoyed a seemingly endless choice of delightful objects from around the world. But many did not share in this prosperity. Agricultural wages were low and Scotland (and to a lesser extent England) suffered disastrous harvest failures and famines in the 1690s and 1709. Ireland was again ravaged by war in 1689–91 and there remained a huge gulf between the palaces of the Anglo-Irish elite and the hovels of the Catholic peasantry and crumbling tenements of Dublin. As England's trade became global, manufacturers tried to reduce costs in order to compete, especially with Indian textiles. Faced with wage cuts workers organised in combinations (trade unions) and went on strike; violence against employers and their property was common. Parliament passed legislation against combinations and protected the interests of the landed elite. This led to occasional agrarian violence and sometimes virtual warfare between smugglers or deer poachers and the agents of the state.

    This chapter will examine both sides of this growing divide. On one hand, there was a growing range of goods (including food and drink) available to those with money. There were attempts to make towns more attractive and pleasant. This was the first great period of London squares and the capital's architectural styles, and entertainments, were increasingly imitated in the provinces. Consumer demand led to developments in manufacturing, which generated a broader prosperity as well as creating tensions between employers and workers. The problem of poverty grew and the poor relief system initiated under Elizabeth came under considerable strain. The chapter will conclude with an attempt to assess the extent to which the landed elite abused their economic power to the detriment of the poor and the extent to which the poor could show their resentment.

  • 13 - Crown and Parliament 1660-1750: 1. England

  • John Miller, Queen Mary University of London
  • Book:
    Early Modern Britain, 1450–1750
    Published online:
    12 September 2018
    Print publication:
    13 April 2017, pp 321-348

  • Summary

    TIMELINE

    1660 Declaration of Breda; election of Convention; Act of Indemnity; vote to grant Charles II ordinary revenue for life

    1661 Election of Cavalier Parliament; Militia Act; Corporation Act

    1664 Triennial Act; Commons vote £2,500,000 for war against Dutch

    1665–7 Second Dutch War

    1672–4 Third Dutch War

    1673 Test Act; Duke of York marries Mary of Modena

    1677 Princess Mary marries William III

    1678 Popish Plot; second Test Act excludes Catholics from House of Lords; end of Cavalier Parliament

    1679 Election of first and second Exclusion Parliaments

    1680 Second Exclusion Parliament meets (October)

    1681 Second and third Exclusion Parliaments dissolved

    1685 Charles II dies, succeeded by James II; Monmouth's rebellion

    1687 Declaration of Indulgence

    1688 Birth of James Francis Edward; invasion of William III; James flees to France

    1689 Crown offered to William and Mary; war with France; resolution against Catholic monarchs; Bill of Rights; Toleration Act

    1690 Commons vote to grant ordinary revenue for limited period

    1694 Triennial Act

    1697 Peace of Ryswick

    1701 Act of Settlement

    1702 Anne succeeds William; war with France

    1707 Union with Scotland

    1713 Peace of Utrecht

    1714 George I succeeds Anne

    1715 Riot Act; Jacobite rebellion

    1716 Septennial Act

    1720 South Sea Bubble

    1727 George II succeeds George I

    1733 Excise Crisis

    1745 Jacobite rebellion

    Introduction

    This period saw the Westminster Parliament become a permanent and regular institution. Before 1640 it had been neither. Having met almost annually in the fifteenth century, it met only once in the last decade of Henry VII's reign. Under Henry VIII it met irregularly and often briefly, except for the Reformation Parliament of 1529–36. Under Elizabeth, Parliament met on average every three years, for a few weeks, and it became more irregular under the early Stuarts: it met only once, briefly, between 1610 and 1621 and not at all between 1629 and 1640. The five parliaments that met between 1621 and 1629 were characterised by conflict and concerns about the institution's future. The Triennial Act of 1641 tried to address these concerns, but it was a moot point whether Charles I could be trusted to abide by it. A new Triennial Act was passed in 1664 but it lacked provisions for its effective enforcement and Charles II ruled without Parliament for almost four years at the end of his reign.

  • 8 - The Coming of War in Three Kingdoms 1625-1642

  • John Miller, Queen Mary University of London
  • Book:
    Early Modern Britain, 1450–1750
    Published online:
    12 September 2018
    Print publication:
    13 April 2017, pp 194-221

  • Summary

    TIMELINE

    1625 Charles I's accession; Commons refuse to vote customs for life

    1626 Impeachment of Buckingham; forced loan

    1628 Petition of Right; Buckingham assassinated; the Graces offered in Ireland

    1629 Parliament dissolved; start of Personal Rule

    1633 Laud Archbishop of Canterbury; Wentworth to Ireland

    1636 Punishment of Prynne, Burton and Bastwick

    1637 Hampden case; Prayer Book rebellion

    1638 Covenant promulgated; King summons Parliament and General Assembly in Scotland; start of Covenanter Revolution

    1640 Laud besieged at Lambeth; Charles defeated at Newburn; Long Parliament convenes

    1641 May: army plot; Strafford executed; Commons approve Protestation

    1641 August: King to Scotland

    1641 October: the ‘Incident’

    1641 November: news of Irish rising; Commons vote to print Grand Remonstrance; King returns to London

    1642 Attempt on Five Members; King leaves London; Parliament increasingly takes over King's powers; King raises standard at Nottingham

    Introduction

    In this period developments in the three kingdoms were intertwined: one cannot understand why civil war broke out in England without understanding why war had first broken out in Scotland and Ireland. The need for a ‘three-kingdoms’ approach makes it futile to explain the English civil wars in terms of changes in English society. Moreover, war broke out within two polities, Scotland and England, which had become more orderly. In England, civil war would seem more likely in the mid-sixteenth century than in the mid-seventeenth because the succession was questionable. Under Charles I the Stuart succession was unchallenged and secure. And yet the civil war happened, and much of the blame for this lay with Charles I.

    The English Legacy of James I

    James had been an unusually successful King of Scotland, apparently taming both nobility and kirk. In England he has received a more hostile press, especially regarding his later years. His infatuation with male favourites, especially George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, attracted much criticism; sodomy was a capital offence. In the early 1620s Buckingham seemed to control key areas of policy-making, including foreign policy, and developed dubious money-making schemes to fund his expensive tastes. James was tired and disillusioned. He had hoped to bring Scots and English together after centuries of conflict, but the English dismissed the Scots as beggarly and verminous. He found governing England tedious; its government was larger and more complex than Scotland's and involved far more paperwork.

  • 5 - The World Economy and International Politics before 1914

  • William Mulligan, University College Dublin
  • Book:
    The Origins of the First World War
    Published online:
    28 May 2018
    Print publication:
    13 April 2017, pp 180-209

  • Summary

    ‘In recent times,’ Otto Neurath, one of Austria's leading economists, wrote in 1910, ‘great wars are not as damaging as might have been expected either to the defeated or to the victorious side and, that on the contrary, something like an economic boom can be observed during or shortly after the war…the economic risk of war is relatively small under the present humane system of waging wars.’ The financier-turned-politician, Paul Rouvier, offered a very different view at the height of the Moroccan crisis in August 1905: ‘As long as there was money, one fought, when the coffers had been emptied, one made peace. Now, everything revolves around credit. Nations are closely bound to each other by the links of credit. A war in Europe would bring about a general disaster.’ Where Neurath claimed that economic factors were not a restraint on war, Rouvier saw the complex web of relations in the world economy as a bond of peace. In general, the Frenchman's assessment was more accurate. Merchants, bankers, and industrialists saw the maintenance of peace as an important foundation for business. Profit, not peace, motivated them, but profit required a stable international system. They were willing to cooperate, regardless of nationality, and chafed at the restrictions imposed by governments on commercial transactions. However, the growing interdependence of the world economy brought in its wake frictions, tensions, and rivalries. Trade wars were a regular feature of international politics. Governments used finance as an instrument to advance their interests. Clashes over economic spheres of influence provided the grit of many diplomatic crises. Global interdependence created new vulnerabilities for states and societies, which naval and military planners targeted.

    The term ‘globalisation’ has been used to describe the emergence of an interconnected world economy in the late nineteenth century. While the term itself was not used before the First World War, contemporaries were acutely conscious of the ways in which societies and economies were connected. Statistics also support the claim that national economies were integrating into regional, imperial, and global economies. In 1913 prices, global trade had increased from $1.7 billion in 1850 to $18.7 billion in 1913. This growth occurred in three unequal phases. In the heyday of free trade, between 1850 and 1872, world trade increased at an average of 4.8 per cent per annum.

  • 7 - State and Society 1536-1625 2: Scotland and Ireland

  • John Miller, Queen Mary University of London
  • Book:
    Early Modern Britain, 1450–1750
    Published online:
    12 September 2018
    Print publication:
    13 April 2017, pp 170-193

  • Summary

    TIMELINE

    1541 Henry VIII becomes King (rather than lord) of Ireland

    1556 Attempted plantation in King's and Queen's County

    1569 Munster rebellion

    1579–83 Desmond rebellion; start of Munster Plantation

    1580 Massacre at Smerwick

    1585 Spain declares war on England

    1598 Act forbidding feuding (Scotland); Tyrone's victory at Yellow Ford; Munster Plantation destroyed

    1601 Spanish army arrives in Ireland; Tyrone defeated at Kinsale

    1603 Tyrone surrenders to Mountjoy

    1607 Flight of the earls (Tyrone and Tyrconnell); way open for Ulster Plantation

    1625 Death of James VI and I

    Introduction

    The experiences of Scotland and Ireland differed greatly from each other and from those of England and Wales. Scotland faced similar economic problems, but the major theme (apart from the Reformation) was the gradual growth of central government and the establishment of order on lines similar to earlier developments in England. In Ireland any economic problems were outweighed by the impact of escalating violence, as the English regime tried in vain to deter resistance, finally embarking on a full-scale conquest, which left the country exhausted. This conquest led to a massive confiscation of Irish Catholics’ lands, which were used to establish English and Scottish plantations, which further complicated Ireland's ethnic and religious divisions.

    Scotland's Economic Problems

    In the fifteenth century Scottish peasants enjoyed relative prosperity. Their diet was likely to include some meat, chicken, fish and dairy produce, as well as oatmeal. As the population rose in the sixteenth century people could no longer afford beef: cattle had to be sold to pay rent. Faced with possible harvest failure peasants concentrated on oats, which had lower yields but were less risky than barley or wheat. But sometimes the oats failed too, leading to widespread famine. The effects of population growth were felt more slowly than in England. There were strong social expectations that leases would be renewed, that sons should succeed fathers and that kin should be given precedence over strangers. However, if landlords were inhibited from evicting tenants, they did increase rents. When famine came its impact was devastating: death from starvation was common, in the 1580s, 1590s and early 1620s. One response was large-scale emigration: in the early seventeenth century about 20 per cent of young men left Scotland for the Continent, where many served in the Thirty Years War.

  • 4 - Public Opinion and International Relations

  • William Mulligan, University College Dublin
  • Book:
    The Origins of the First World War
    Published online:
    28 May 2018
    Print publication:
    13 April 2017, pp 136-179

  • Summary

    In 1881, a rising star in the British diplomatic establishment, Francis Ottiwell Adams, wrote from Paris to the foreign secretary, Lord Granville: ‘Up to that time [the political crisis of 1877] it may be said that there was no public opinion at all throughout the country…From that time forward, a public opinion has been gradually growing. Journalism has become comparatively free, & the Government could no longer fetter that freedom nor control the whole press as of yore…The very idea of a war with a neighbour raises a scare, & if I may say so, they are like boys at school, who having been severely chastised by their master, are still smarting from the pain, & will do almost anything to avoid the chance of another such punishment.’

    Adams was entirely wrong that there had been no public opinion in France before the 1877 crisis, but his letter contained four astute insights. First, it identified the importance of the changing structures of the public sphere, in which public opinion could be expressed. Second, he examined the range of popular attitudes, which in this case wanted to preserve peace. Third, it was significant that he was only interested in public opinion in terms of its impact on government policy. For him, public opinion only existed if the governing elites were influenced by it. Finally, it was also significant that he felt it necessary to write a lengthy analysis for the British Foreign Secretary. Public opinion could influence the government of the state in which it was expressed – for example, French public opinion influenced the French government – but it could also influence the perceptions and attitudes of other governments; for example, French public opinion could influence the formulation of German foreign policy. National public opinions could also interact with each other across borders, either escalating tensions in press wars or cooperating with each other to improve relations.

    Historians have differed widely about the significance and role of public opinion in international politics before the First World War. For some, public opinion was largely irrelevant to foreign policy, which was formulated by a small number of politicians and officials. These elites may have been aware of public attitudes about international affairs, but they never took them into account when developing policy. Others, such as E. D. Morel, argued that the war was the result of secret diplomacy.

  • 5 - The Growth of Protestantism to 1625

  • John Miller, Queen Mary University of London
  • Book:
    Early Modern Britain, 1450–1750
    Published online:
    12 September 2018
    Print publication:
    13 April 2017, pp 112-141

  • Summary

    TIMELINE

    1547 Accession of Edward VI; chantries dissolved

    1549 First Prayer Book; Western rebellion

    1552 Second Prayer Book

    1553 Edward VI dies; accession of Mary I; Catholic liturgy restored

    1554 Mary marries Philip II; papal supremacy restored

    1558 Mary and Cardinal Pole die; accession of Elizabeth I

    1559 (1560 in Ireland) Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity

    1560 Treaty of Edinburgh; First Book of Discipline

    1563 Thirty-Nine Articles

    1566 James VI born

    1567 Mary Queen of Scots deposed (1568 flees to England)

    1570 Pope excommunicates Elizabeth

    1577 Archbishop Grindal suspended

    1584 Association; Black Acts

    1585 Philip II declares war on England

    1587 Mary Queen of Scots executed

    1588 First Spanish armada

    1592 Trinity College Dublin founded

    1603 Elizabeth dies; James VI succeeds as James I of England

    1606 Oath of allegiance (following Gunpowder Plot, 1605)

    1615 104 Articles (Ireland)

    1618 Synod of Dort

    1621 Five Articles of Perth

    1625 James VI and I dies

    Introduction

    In 1547 the churches of England and Scotland were not yet Protestant; by 1625 they were different, but definitely Protestant; both forms of Protestantism could also be found in Ireland, but there the majority of the population remained Catholic. This chapter considers three main themes in the growth of Protestantism.

    First, it was shaped more by Continental than indigenous influences. English and Scottish clergymen encountered Protestantism in cities like Frankfurt, Zurich and Geneva (none of them Lutheran). Continental theologians came to British universities and ‘Stranger’ (foreign) churches were established in England. Theologically Calvin became the most potent influence: there was no British or Irish scholar of remotely comparable stature. Calvin's Geneva also provided a Presbyterian model of church government followed in Scotland; some hoped to establish it in England.

    Second, destruction was more apparent than construction. To eradicate superstitions the objects on which they depended were destroyed. This process began under Henry VIII, with reference to shrines and images, but some images were still permitted. For committed Protestants, everything that was not commanded by scripture had to be eradicated. The lumber of centuries had to be swept away before the primitive Church could be recreated, based solely on the Bible. This required learned preachers, but it took decades to train enough.

  • 10 - Syntax and Semantics

  • Olaf Koeneman, Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen, Hedde Zeijlstra, Georg-August-Universität, Göttingen, Germany
  • Book:
    Introducing Syntax
    Published online:
    28 May 2018
    Print publication:
    13 April 2017, pp 244-267

  • Summary

    CHAPTER OUTLINE

    In the previous chapters, we focused on the relation between syntax and the way syntactic structures are expressed: how do concrete morpho-phonological forms get inserted into the syntactic representation, and how do these forms get linearised in the order we hear them in? But sentences are not only expressed; they also have a meaning. Semantics is the grammatical component that assigns an interpretation (i.e. a meaning) to a sentence. How does it do that? Crucially, like morphology and phonology, semantics is also based on the output of the syntax: the way words and morphemes with their interpretable features are merged determines the meaning of a sentence. This sounds like a pretty straightforward procedure, but we will see that the relation between syntax and semantics is not always transparent, as was also the case for syntax and morphology. In order to get to the right interpretations of sentences we sometimes need more syntax than syntax seems to give us.

    Insight: Compositionality

    How does a sentence get the meaning it has? This is a question that has interested philosophers and linguists for centuries. And even though there are many complex issues at stake, at least on two points consensus has arisen. These two points may sound obvious at first sight, but appear to be very powerful in explaining all kinds of semantic effects.

    The first point is that the meaning of a sentence is determined by the meaning of the words or morphemes it consists of. If you have the sentence John love-d Mary, the meaning of the entire sentence follows from the meaning of components like John, love, -d and Mary. This sentence cannot all of a sudden mean that some guy hated Bill. No meaningful elements are removed or added when we interpret this sentence. In that sense, sentence meaning is like a linguistic fruit salad. If you mix bananas, strawberries and apples, the salad is not going to taste like oranges. Now, you may wonder, though, what exactly we mean when we say that semantics is interested in the meaning of words and morphemes. Wasn't it the case that words are sometimes formed after the syntax, for instance by morphologically merging the features in Fin with V+v?

  • 3 - Monarchies and Their Problems 1450-1536

  • John Miller, Queen Mary University of London
  • Book:
    Early Modern Britain, 1450–1750
    Published online:
    12 September 2018
    Print publication:
    13 April 2017, pp 62-89

  • Summary

    TIMELINE

    1450 Cade's rising

    1453 Loss of French territories; Henry VI's son born; Henry VI's mental breakdown

    1455 Battle of St Albans; Henry VI recovers from illness

    1460 York claims Crown, killed at Battle of Wakefield

    1461 Yorkist victory at Towton; Henry VI flees to Scotland; Edward IV seizes Crown

    1470 Edward IV flees into exile; Henry VI again proclaimed King (‘Readeption’)

    1471 Edward IV defeats Queen Margaret; Henry VI killed

    1483 Edward IV dies; Richard III seizes the throne

    1485 Richard III killed at Bosworth; Henry VII proclaimed King

    1487 Lambert Simnel defeated at Stoke

    1497 Cornish rising suppressed; Perkin Warbeck surrenders to Henry VII

    1502 Henry VII's son Arthur dies

    1509 Henry VIII succeeds his father

    1513 English defeat Scots at Flodden; James IV killed

    1525 ‘Amicable Grant’

    1529 Wolsey falls from power; Reformation Parliament (1529–36) assembles

    1536 Union between England and Wales; Acts against Liberties and Franchises; Statute of Uses; Pilgrimage of Grace

    Introduction

    1450 marked one of the lowest points of the medieval English monarchy, with Cade's rebellion and the lynching of several of the King's leading servants. Henry VI was not a tyrant but his simplicity was abused by men who behaved tyrannously and by his strong-minded queen. His refusal to heed good counsel created deep divisions among the nobility, which led to civil war; the battles were often small, but followed by brutal murders of the defeated. Earlier usurpations had created uncertainty about the rightful succession, opening the way for Yorkists to claim the Crown. Civil war led to the breakdown of order in many areas and a need for stable and effective government to restore the rule of law. Yorkist rule ended with the death of Richard III, but the first two Tudors showed strong signs of dynastic insecurity. The English monarchy was underfunded compared with the great Continental powers. Henry VIII's French wars made his financial problems worse and his breach with Rome increased the danger of foreign invasion. All of this made it urgent to tackle the ‘lawless zones’: the Anglo-Scottish borderlands, Wales and the Welsh Marches and Ireland. The Scottish kings were free of dynastic uncertainties: Stewart rule was not challenged. However, royal minorities created problems and the Stewarts faced the problems of ‘lawless zones’ and the weakness of royal justice outside the major towns.

  • 8 - Syntax and Morphology

  • Olaf Koeneman, Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen, Hedde Zeijlstra, Georg-August-Universität, Göttingen, Germany
  • Book:
    Introducing Syntax
    Published online:
    28 May 2018
    Print publication:
    13 April 2017, pp 194-219

  • Summary

    CHAPTER OUTLINE

    In this chapter, we will look at the interaction between syntax and morphology. You may wonder why this is of interest, because this is not immediately obvious. Syntax gives us a syntactic tree with words dangling from it. These have to be expressed in a particular order, but that is the job for phonology (to be explored in chapter 9), not morphology. So is there anything intriguing about the relationship between the tree and the dangling words that requires our attention? Morphology would be of little interest to a syntactician if the rules of morphology (the science of word structure) operated fully independently from the rules of syntax (the science of sentence structure). One could say that morphology produces words, syntax subsequently uses these words, and that is all there is to it. Reality, however, turns out to be much more complex. Instead of saying that morphology provides the elements that syntax uses, some observations force us to say the exact opposite: syntax provides the input that morphology uses to create words. This in turn suggests that morphology is not a mere delivery service for syntax but that it becomes active after the syntactic representation has been built. Since the relationship between syntax and morphology is more complex than initially envisaged, it makes sense to study the processes that take place at the interface between these two components of grammar. This is exactly what this chapter will do.

    Insight: Morphology and Syntax are Different Grammatical Modules

    The relationship between syntax and morphology is not always transparent; this justifies its study. This may sound like a completely new concept, but in fact you have already seen concrete cases of mismatches between syntax and morphology. Let us look at three of these.

    The first involves the syntactic location of the tense and agreement properties that are part and parcel of finite clauses. Remember that we had reasons to think that these properties reside in a syntactic position that we called Fin, the head of the FinP.

Page 1338 of 1933