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38649 results in Cambridge Textbooks

Page 1351 of 1933

  • 7 - Health risk behaviours: alcohol, drugs and smoking

  • Jill Dorrian, University of South Australia, Einar Thorsteinsson, University of New England, Australia, Mirella Di Benedetto, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Katrina Lane-Krebs, Central Queensland University, Melissa Day, University of Queensland, Amanda Hutchinson, University of South Australia, Kerry Sherman, Macquarie University, Sydney
  • Book:
    Health Psychology in Australia
    Published online:
    21 June 2018
    Print publication:
    14 February 2017, pp 158-190

  • Summary

    Learning outcomes

    After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

    • describe the primary risk factors for health in Australia today

    • explain behavioural risk factors that meet diagnostic criteria for substance use disorders

    • explain why drivers of health risk behaviours are often complex, personal and emotionally laden

    • describe the prevalence and impact of, and treatments for, excessive alcohol use and tobacco smoking

    • describe the risk factors, treatment barriers and predictors of relapse for excessive alcohol use and tobacco smoking.

    Introduction

    Historically, healthcare has primarily focused on infectious diseases. In recent times, in developed countries such as Australia there has been a shift towards chronic illness and accidents. Indeed, the current health priority areas in Australia are cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, mental health, obesity, injury prevention/control, arthritis/musculoskeletal conditions and asthma (AIHW, 2011b). Risk factors for these priorities involve complex behavioural and social interactions. This chapter outlines some of the most common behaviours that are considered risk factors for health. An additional intricacy when considering health risk behaviours is that they are often associated with social disapproval or stigma. This can itself become a barrier to behaviour change, and ultimately treatment. In order to be effective agents of positive behaviour change, health psychologists need to understand the many factors that predispose an individual to health risk behaviours, as well as the barriers to change. In this chapter, we discuss alcohol dependence and tobacco smoking as examples of the complex reasons for behaviour that go beyond conscious ‘choice’. These two behaviours are primary risk factors for the common chronic illnesses (or ‘lifestyle diseases’) that are putting a large burden on the healthcare system.

    Behavioural risk factors for health

    The Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW, 2015) has compiled a list of risk factors to health, summarised in Table 7.1. These risk factors fall into five categories: behavioural, genetic, biomedical, environmental and demographic. As health psychologists, we are particularly interested in the behavioural risk factors, as they are potentially modifiable through targeted interventions at the individual and societal level.

  • 5 - Nutrition, exercise and health

  • Jill Dorrian, University of South Australia, Einar Thorsteinsson, University of New England, Australia, Mirella Di Benedetto, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Katrina Lane-Krebs, Central Queensland University, Melissa Day, University of Queensland, Amanda Hutchinson, University of South Australia, Kerry Sherman, Macquarie University, Sydney
  • Book:
    Health Psychology in Australia
    Published online:
    21 June 2018
    Print publication:
    14 February 2017, pp 96-125

  • Summary

    Learning outcomes

    After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

    • explain key benefits and risks associated with nutrition and different types of diet

    • critically analyse different types of nutritional and exercise recommendations and claimed health benefits

    • identify limitations in the existing scientific research and how that impacts on the generalisability of said research findings

    • understand issues surrounding eating disorders

    • evaluate barriers to increased physical activity levels.

    Introduction

    This chapter focuses on scientific findings and theory surrounding nutrition and exercise and how the right nutrition and exercise can improve health-related outcomes. Nutrition and diet will be examined synonymously, and this examination will cover controversial areas such as saturated fat, cholesterol, salt, alcohol, fibre, sugar, fast food and some of the diets on offer. This chapter should provide you with an understanding of diet, exercise, weight gain and eating disorders. This means that we will try to delve into the many complex motivators for food selection and consumption.

    If there was ever an area in science that has been regarded as difficult, contentious and full of ‘gurus’ who preach ‘the truth’, that might be the science of nutrition, and especially how the food we ingest has the power to affect our health. Given our current state of knowledge, it seems safe to say that anyone trying to sell you the perfect diet is really only selling the idea of a perfect diet and not the perfect diet per se.

    So how do we know what to eat, what not to eat and how much to eat? What can the research literature tell us? When we implement interventions to change the diet of a particular population, we need to base such interventions on scientific evidence and knowledge and we need to monitor what effects such changes have on the health of the population in question. We can also examine animal-based studies to see what extreme diets can do to our health. The question is: Can we improve our consumption patterns in Australia and, if so, how?

  • 17 - Quarks and Gluons, Confinement and Jets

  • Gordon Kane, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
  • Book:
    Modern Elementary Particle Physics
    Published online:
    28 May 2018
    Print publication:
    09 February 2017, pp 132-138

  • Summary

    Electrons and protons have electric charge. Opposite charges attract, and they bind into hydrogen atoms held together by the electromagnetic force. The hydrogen atom has a ground state, an infinite tower of radial excited states for each angular momentum, and an infinite number of orbital angular momenta. The energy levels are modified by spin-orbit forces, all of which are spin-dependent electromagnetic forces. In particle language, the bound state potential is generated from an infinite set of photon exchange diagrams. No finite set of perturbation theory diagrams will give a bound state, so actual calculation of the binding effects is a complicated problem; the fully relativistic bound state problem is not yet solved, even in quantum electrodynamics.

    Since quarks have electric charge, they will form “atoms” as well. But quarks of course feel another force, the QCD or color force mediated by gluons. Since the gluon force is considerably stronger than the electromagnetic force, its properties will determine what spectroscopic patterns are expected. From a space-time point of view, a single gluon is like a single photon, but, because of the self-interaction of gluons, multigluon diagrams can lead to quite different properties, and indeed they do.

    From the point of view of the spectroscopic rules, the electromagnetic force is very simple. Atoms only form from opposite charges. That a very different result will hold for QCD is suggested by observing that the electromagnetic force is characterized by a U(1) symmetry, while the QCD interaction is characterized by an SU(3) symmetry. The difference leads to the existence of baryons!

    Since the QCD force is very complicated, and perturbation theory arguments based on a few diagrams are not expected to give the dominant effects for most bound state questions, we shall describe the situation by writing a few rules, showing that the observed states obey the rules, and motivating the rules from QCD-based arguments.

    Confinement of Color, and Color-Singlet Hadrons

    The essential point to make is that it is thought that QCD has the property that the potential energy of two colored particles increases approximately linearly with the distance between them.

  • 1 - Introduction

  • Gordon Kane, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
  • Book:
    Modern Elementary Particle Physics
    Published online:
    28 May 2018
    Print publication:
    09 February 2017, pp 1-9

  • Summary

    The Standard Model of particle physics is an awesome theory, providing a description and explanation of the world we see, in a full relativistic quantum field theory. It leaves no puzzles in its domain. It achieves the goals of four centuries of physics. This book describes and explains the Standard Model to anyone who has had an introductory course in quantum theory.

    Remarkably, the field of particle physics is completely different today from what it was before the 1970s. That's because there was huge progress in a few years around 1970, when some major experimental and theoretical developments occurred and merged together. Physicists learned that quarks and leptons are the fundamental objects of which all matter is composed; they interact via the exchange of “gauge bosons.” The forces that significantly affect them are the unified electroweak force, whose gauge bosons are the photon and the W ± and Z 0 bosons, and the strong force. The theory of the strong force is called quantum chromodynamics (QCD); the gauge bosons of the strong force are the (eight) gluons. (All the new terms here will be defined as the new physics appears in context.)

    In another sense there is great continuity. The theory fully incorporates special relativity and quantum field theory. And there has been a continuous development of relativistic quantum field theory from its inception before 1930. Theorists have learned how to deal with difficult problems such as mass and renormalization. There has been steady and extraordinary progress in particle physics, both in understanding quantum field theory and in learning what to include in the Lagrangian; no revolution has occurred. The theories which describe the particles and their interactions seem to be “gauge theories,” a special class of quantum theories where there is an invariance principle that necessarily implies the existence of interactions mediated by gauge bosons. In gauge theories the interaction Lagrangian is, in a sense, inevitable rather than being introduced in an ad hoc way as in quantum theory.

    The theory is formulated in terms of a function called “the Lagrangian.” In practice, “theory” and “Lagrangian” mean the same thing.

    The basic formulation of the theory is accessible to anyone having a simple undergraduate introduction to quantum mechanics including spin.

  • 13 - Experiments and Detectors

  • Gordon Kane, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
  • Book:
    Modern Elementary Particle Physics
    Published online:
    28 May 2018
    Print publication:
    09 February 2017, pp 111-116

  • Summary

    This chapter provides a brief description of how information is obtained about the particles that emerge from a collision. In order to understand fully how the theory and its predictions are tested, it is necessary to have some understanding of how the experiments function.

    A further goal is to identify the main detectors from which results could emerge during the next decade. At colliders the products of an interaction can emerge in any direction, so detectors must cover essentially all of the 4π solid angle – they are called “4π” detectors. The cost of a detector that can identify hadrons, photons, electrons, and muons, and also know when something has escaped, which is crucial to find (or not) new physics, has become so large that only a few detectors at each machine can be funded or find manpower for construction and operation and analysis, and they generally will have a rather long lifetime, being upgraded once or twice to do more physics as the machine improves or the physics goals change because of new knowledge. Consequently the detectors have taken on a life of their own, and results will often be quoted as “CMS (or ATLAS) reports …” or “MARK II discovered ….” We list the main detectors which have been important for the Standard Model, and those which will be the most common sources of results over the next decade. The size and complexity of detectors implies that they are very costly and take several years to build, so it is now possible to specify most or all of the detectors which will provide results over the next decade.

    What Emerges from a Collider

    The beams available to collide quarks, leptons, and gauge bosons are electrons and positrons (e ±), quarks (q), and gluons (g), where the quarks and gluons are carried in hadrons. When the accelerated hadrons are p ±, the quarks are mainly u and d quarks. In addition, quarks and electrons emit photons and W ± and Z 0 particles at sufficient rates effectively to make photon and W and Z beams under appropriate conditions. We do not distinguish quarks from antiquarks for our purposes. Various particles will emerge from the collisions. By detecting what emerges, with what momentum, at what angle, and how often, we hope to test the present understanding of particles and their interactions and to find any new physics effects.

  • 14 - Low Energy and Non-Accelerator Experiments

  • Gordon Kane, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
  • Book:
    Modern Elementary Particle Physics
    Published online:
    28 May 2018
    Print publication:
    09 February 2017, pp 117-118

  • Summary

    The previous two chapters emphasized high energy colliders and their detectors. In order that the reader does not get the impression that the only frontier is the high energy one, here we briefly mention other directions from which major discoveries might come. It turns out that our basic subject in this book, the Standard Model and its tests, is indeed more naturally the domain of high energy, high luminosity machines. That is because the natural scale of the Standard Model is of the order of MW or MZ , that is, of the order of 100 GeV. Testing the high energy predictions of the Standard Model requires TeV energies in the quark, lepton, or gluon collisions.

    Nevertheless, our purpose is also to prepare the reader to understand any future developments in particle physics, both by providing an explanation of the Standard Model as the foundation on which anything new will stand, and by knowing whether the Standard Model is conceptually incomplete. Several kinds of experiments are in progress or planned which could extend the Standard Model in new directions. Some use low energy secondary beams at accelerators, and others are truly non-accelerator experiments. They include:

  • (1) searches for neutrino mass effects from neutrino oscillations, from detection of solar neuutrinos or atmospheric neutrinos, or from nuclear β decays;

  • (2) searches for neutrinoless double beta decay, which is sensitive to neutrino masses, right-handed currents, and any new light particles which might couple to neutrinos;

  • (3) searches for rare or forbidden decays of mesons or leptons or quarks;

  • (4) searches for dark matter;

  • (5) searches for nucleon decay;

  • (6) searches for magnetic moments. In particular, the reported magnetic moment of the muon currently deviates from the Standard Model by about three standard deviations, based on an important measurement at Brookhaven National Laboratory. The experiment has been rebuilt at Fermilab, and should take data in 2017. The experiment is based on a muon storage ring and measuring the correlation of the muon momenta and spins. In addition, the theory has subtleties that are being better understood.

  • (7) Electric dipole moments violate CP invariance. The CP invariance described in Chapter 21 implies a very tiny effect for electrons and neutrons, but some physics beyond the Standard Model could give larger observable effects, and searching for them is an active and important field since nearly all extensions of the Standard Model give effects, sometimes significant ones.

Page 1351 of 1933