The Path of the Bodhisattva

A ‘Bodhisattva’ (see p. 15) is a ‘being of/for awakening’, that is, one dedicated to attaining bodhi – ‘awakening’, ‘enlightenment’ or ‘buddhahood’. One who aims at the bodhi of a perfect Buddha, rather than of a Pratyeka-buddha or Arhat (see p. 99), was sometimes also called a Mahāsattva, a Great Being, or one directed towards the Great, that is, perfect Buddhahood (Harrison, 2000: 174–5; Williams, 2009: 55) – though the term ‘Bodhisattva’ on its own is usually understood in this sense. The Mahāyāna is focused on this kind of Bodhisattva, one on the path to perfect Buddhahood, whose task is to compassionately help beings while maturing his or her own wisdom (BT.83–5; BTTA.124–7).

Wisdom, compassion and skilful means

In his wisdom (prajñā), the Mahāyāna Bodhisattva knows that there are no ‘beings’, just fluxes of ‘dharmas’ that lack inherent existence (BTTA.157), but his ‘skilful means’ enables him to reconcile this wisdom with his compassion (karuṇā). This urges him to work for the salvation of all beings, for such empty fluxes do experience ‘themselves’ as ‘suffering beings’ (Vc. sec. 3).

Indian culture has not been as concerned with recording precise dates as have Chinese or Graeco-Roman cultures, so datings cannot always be arrived at with accuracy. All sources agree that Gotama was eighty when he died (e.g. D.ii.100), and the Pali sources of Theravāda Buddhism say that this was ‘218’ years before the inauguration of the reign of the Buddhist emperor Asoka (Skt Aśoka): the ‘long chronology’. Sanskrit sources preserved in East Asia have a ‘short chronology’, with his death ‘100’ years or so before Asoka’s inauguration. Based on a traditional date of the inauguration, Pali sources see Gotama’s dates as 623–543 bce. However, references in Asokan edicts to named Hellenistic kings have meant that modern scholars have put the inauguration at c. 268 bce (giving c. 566–486 bce for Gotama) or, more recently, anywhere between 267 and 280 bce. Richard Gombrich has argued that ‘218’ and ‘100’ are best seen as approximate numbers, and sees 136 as more likely, based on figures associated with a lineage of Buddhist teachers in the Dīpavaṃsa, a chronicle of Sri Lanka – with the ‘218’ in this text (6.1) as from its misunderstanding of figures in its earlier part. With various margins of error, Gombrich sees Gotama’s death as between 422 and 399 bce, with c. 404 as most likely, giving his dates as c. 484–404 bce.

The history of Buddhism spans almost 2,500 years from its origin in India with Siddhattha Gotama (Pali, Skt Siddhārtha Gautama), through its spread to most parts of Asia and, in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, to the West. Richard Gombrich holds that the Buddha was ‘one of the most brilliant and original thinkers of all time’ (2009: vii), whose ‘ideas should form part of the education of every child, the world over’, which ‘would make the world a more civilized place, both gentler and more intelligent’ (Gombrich, 2009: 1), and with Buddhism, at least in numerical terms, as ‘the greatest movement in the entire history of human ideas’ (Gombrich, 2009: 194). While its fortunes have waxed and waned over the ages, over half of the present world population live in areas where it is, or has been, a dominant cultural force.

The English term ‘Buddhism’ correctly indicates that the religion is characterized by a devotion to ‘the Buddha’, ‘Buddhas’ or ‘buddha-hood’. ‘Buddha’ is not a proper name, but a descriptive title meaning ‘Awakened One’ or ‘Enlightened One’. This implies that most people are seen, in a spiritual sense, as being asleep – unaware of how things really are. As ‘Buddha’ is a title, it should not be used as a name, as in, for example, ‘Buddha taught that . . .’. In many contexts, ‘the Buddha’ is specific enough, meaning the Buddha known to history, Gotama. From its earliest times, though, the Buddhist tradition has postulated other Buddhas who have lived on earth in distant past ages, or who will do so in the future. The later tradition also postulated the existence of many Buddhas currently existing in other parts of the universe. All such Buddhas, known as sammā-sambuddhas (Skt samyak-sambuddhas), or ‘perfect fully Awakened Ones’, are nevertheless seen as occurring only rarely within the vast and ancient cosmos. More common are those who are ‘buddhas’ in a lesser sense, who have awakened to the nature of reality by practising in accordance with the guidance of a perfect Buddha such as Gotama. The Tibetan tradition also recognizes certain humans as manifestations on earth of Buddhas of other world-systems.

The Mahāyāna kind of motivation, of compassionately aspiring for perfect Buddhahood, is typically set within a framework of Mahāyāna doctrine. One should not forget, however, that such motivation has also existed in a minority of those whose doctrinal framework has been that of one of the early schools, such as the Theravāda. There are also those whose doctrinal context is Mahāyāna, but who aim for worldly protection, or a good rebirth, or their own liberation, so as to not (yet) have a motivation-level that is Mahāyāna.

The Mahāyāna doctrinal perspective is expressed in both Sūtras and a number of Śāstras, ‘treatises’ written by named authors. These systematically present the outlook of particular Mahāyāna schools, based on the Sūtras, logic and meditational experience. Each school is associated with a particular group of Sūtras, whose meaning it sees as fully explicit (nītārtha); other Sūtras may be regarded as in need of interpretation (neyārtha). In India, the Mahāyāna developed two main philosophical schools: the Mādhyamika, and later the Yogācāra. Both have been key influences on Northern and Eastern Buddhism.

In this and the following chapter, the central doctrines of early Buddhism, as presented primarily in the Pali Canon, will be outlined, along with some of their later applications. While the Mahāyāna developed a new orientation towards some of these early teachings, and new doctrines of its own, such developments can only be understood against the background of these teachings. In the Theravāda, they have remained the guiding framework for all new developments.

In a sense, Buddhism begins and ends with the Buddha’s awakening experience, for this is the ultimate source of Buddhist teachings, and these are a guide towards moral and spiritual development culminating in an experience of a like nature. At his awakening, the Buddha gained direct knowledge of rebirth, karma and the four ‘True Realities for the Spiritually Ennobled’. All of the central teachings of early Buddhism can be arranged under one or other of these three heads.

India and Central Asia

During the Hindu Gupta dynasty (320–540), which ruled much of north India, Hinduism grew stronger. Buddhism generally continued to flourish, though, with the rulers patronizing both religions. During the century from around 450 ce, the White Huns, originally from Central Asia, devastated monasteries in Afghanistan, northern Pakistan and areas of western India. By the seventh century, a slow recovery was being made in the north-west, with the Buddhism of southern Pakistan remaining strong. In western and some southern regions of India, though, it was losing out to Hinduism and Jainism. From 750 ce, the mostly Buddhist Pāla dynasty ruled in the north-east, patronizing Buddhism and supporting five monastic universities, the major one being the internationally renowned Nālandā. In the eleventh century, Pāla rule weakened, and it was followed in 1118 by the Hindu Sen dynasty. From 986 ce, the Muslim Turks started raiding north-west India from Afghanistan, plundering western India early in the eleventh century. Forced conversions to Islam were made, and Buddhist images smashed, due to the Islamic dislike of ‘idolatry’. Indeed, in India, the Islamic term for an ‘idol’ became ‘budd’. By 1192, the Turks established rule over north India from Delhi. The north-eastern stronghold of Buddhism then fell, with the destruction of Nālandā university in 1198. In the north-east, east and Kashmir, Buddhism lingered on for another two centuries or so, with some royal patronage in the latter two areas. In Kashmir it was forcibly stamped out by the Muslims in the fifteenth century. Buddhist refugees fled to south India (where Hindu kings resisted Muslim power), South-east Asia, Nepal and Tibet. What is now known as the Theravāda school continued on the south-east coast, in Tamil Nadu, until at least the seventeenth century (Berkwitz, 2010: 142), before it withdrew from the war-torn region to the island of Ceylon. From the sixteenth century, however, it had been reintroduced from Burma to the north-eastern fringes of the Indian sub-continent.

The Role and Basis of Ethics in Buddhism

In Buddhism, moral virtue (Pali sīla, Skt śīla) is the foundation of the spiritual path, though a fixed clinging to rules and observances as if they alone were the whole of the path is seen as a hindering ‘fetter’ (see p. 85). Virtue is seen to generate freedom from remorse, and this helps a person to develop on through gladness and joy to meditative calm, insight and liberation (A.v.2). While this model of ethics as part of a ‘path’ predominates, it is modified in some Mahāyāna schools, particularly in Japan. Here, Sōtō Zen sees morality as the making manifest of one’s innate Buddha-nature, while Jōdo-shin sees it as simply expressing gratitude to Amitābha for having saved one.

The overcoming of dukkha, both in oneself and in others, is Buddhism’s central preoccupation, towards which ethical action contributes. It is seen as in the nature of things that behaving ethically reduces suffering and increases happiness, for oneself and those one interacts with. A moral life is not a burdensome duty or set of bare ‘oughts’ but an uplifting source of happiness, in which the sacrifice of lesser pleasures facilitates the experiencing of more enriching and satisfying ones. Accordingly, Buddhism says that, if one wants to attain prosperity, amicable social relationships or a good reputation, self-confidence or calm and joy, a good rebirth or progress towards Nirvāṇa, then act in such and such a way: for this is how such things are fostered (BS1.83–6). If one behaves otherwise, then one will suffer in this and subsequent lives, as a natural (karmic) result of unwholesome actions. It is not, though, that the reason something is a good action is that it brings pleasant karmic fruits to the person who does the action. Rather, such fruits come because an action is itself a blameless one which is kusala (Skt kuśala): ‘wholesome’ – coming from a morally healthy state of mind, and nurturing this – and ‘skilful’ – informed by wisdom (Cousins, 1996b; Harvey 2009b: 381–2). That said, the karmic benefits of virtuous actions often become part of the motivation for doing them, though a higher motive is to do it for the goodness of the action itself.

As European powers expanded into Asia, knowledge of its religions became more soundly based. Changes in European thought also led to some receptivity to ideas from non-Christian religions. In the eighteenth century, the Enlightenment’s emphasis on ‘reason’ and ‘science’ weakened reliance on authoritative ‘revelation’ in religious matters, and a number of people thought that they saw a ‘natural religion’ held in common by people of all cultures, though best expressed in Christianity. In the nineteenth century, advances in geology and Biblical studies led to a weakening of Biblical literalism, and the concept of biological evolution seemed, to many, to cast doubts on the ‘revealed’ Christian account of creation. In this context, the idea of making a ‘scientific’, ‘comparative’ study of all religions came to be advanced (Sharpe, 1986).

These elements came together in the last two decades of the nineteenth century, when there was something of a vogue for (modernist) Buddhism among sections of the middle classes in America, Britain and Germany. Like Christianity, Buddhism had a noble ethical system, but it appeared to be a religion of self-help, not dependent on God or priests. Like science, it seemed to be based on experience, saw the universe as ruled by law, and did not regard humans and animals as radically distinct. Yet for those with a taste for mysticism, such as those touched by the Romantic movement, it offered more than science.

Most traditions of Buddhism consider saddhā (Skt śraddhā), ‘trustful confidence’ or ‘faith’, as a quality which must be balanced by wisdom, and as a preparation for, or accompaniment of, meditation. Given this proviso, devotion plays an important part in the life of most Buddhists. While it can often have a meditative quality to it, it is associated with ‘morality’ in the triad ‘morality, meditation and wisdom’, and is seen as perfected at the same time as it, on reaching stream-entry (see p. 85). Among the ideas that are implicit in the devotion-related actions of most Asian Buddhists, Shenpen Hookham (2004) has identified the following:

• Adhiṣṭhāna (Skt, Pali adhiṭṭhāna): ‘influence or blessing, a kind of power that passes from one person to the next like a contagious disease’ (2004: 187). Monks and nuns bear this by their connection back to the Buddha’s great spiritual power through their ordination-lineages, as well as through the virtue of their way of life. Such a blessing may be conveyed by a short chant, or laying hands on the head, or the passing on of a blessed object, such as a piece of script, an image, or a cord that has been connected to chanting monks.

• Nidāna: connection, the kind of physical proximity that allows adhiṣṭhāna to pass from one thing or person to another. This is especially the case when, with an open heart, a person makes offerings or shows devotion to an image, monument or person connected to the Buddha.

• Puṇya (Pali puñña, translated in this book as ‘karmic fruitfulness’): the positive power or energy of goodness that can be actively accumulated and then directed to whatever goal one chooses. It is more abundant when giving to those rich in adhiṣṭhāna, or when giving out of compassion to those in need.

• […]

On the Buddhist path, a key quality to develop is that of paññā (Skt prajñā), understanding or wisdom. This is of three kinds, nurtured by: (i) hearing or reading teachings from scriptures and living spiritual teachers; (ii) reflection on these; and (iii) meditative ‘development’ or ‘cultivation’ (bhāvanā) of the citta (heart/mind) and the factors of the Path. The third aspect is what matures true wisdom, which directly sees things ‘as they really are’, hence cutting through spiritual ignorance: the key aspect of awakening/enlightenment. In their different ways, the various methods of Buddhist meditation entail stepping back from involvement in the everyday flow of the mind, so as to pause and contemplatively observe. From this stance, there can then be a deep calming down, a stilling and a transformative waking up.

For all schools, there are meditative aspects to the devotional practices carried out by most laypeople, indeed chanting is perhaps the most prevalent form of Buddhist meditative cultivation. Chanting (see pp. 243–4), when done well, requires appropriate mental application, focus and mindful awareness, and helps generate energy, joy and calm, so that the mind is little affected by hindrances to meditative concentration. It thus contributes to the systematic nurturing and growing of good qualities, and undermining negative traits which hinder this process. Buddhaghosa, in his classical meditation manual the Visuddhimagga (Path of Purification), includes as meditation topics mindful recollection (anussati) of the special qualities of the Buddha, Dhamma, Saṅgha, using formulas that are identical to, or close to, the wording of common Pali chants (A.iii.284–8 (BW.279–81)). Moreover, chanting the Karaṇīya-metta Sutta (see p. 279) may be the most common way of practising mettā-bhāvanā, the cultivation of lovingkindness. When monks chant for the laity, it can also be seen as a form of ‘broadcast meditation’, whose effect on the laity will depend on the quality of attention in both themselves and the chanters.

In the last two centuries, Buddhism has undergone a number of changes, and has had to respond to a range of pressures, coming from:

• Colonization of Asian countries by Western powers, which undermined political structures associated with Buddhism, but also led to Western scholarship on it, so helping its spread to the West, and to stimulating changes in Buddhism, both in colonized countries and in those influenced by them.

• Christianity: criticism of Buddhists by Christians was one element in stimulating increasing Buddhist social activism. Moreover, in South Korea and to some extent the Republic of China, Christianity and Buddhism are currently rivals for people’s commitment.

• Communism: this has been something of a wet blanket on Buddhism in China (now including Tibet), North Korea, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and Mongolia. It remains most repressive in North Korea, though Cambodia and Mongolia have escaped from its rule in the last twenty years.

• Marxist-nationalism in Burma: not anti-Buddhist, as such, but it acts against Buddhist values.

• War or its after-effects, especially in Cambodia and Sri Lanka: Cambodia was affected by American bombing, then by the Khmer Rouge; Sri Lanka has been affected by a civil war between the Sinhalese and Tamils.

• Modern capitalism: originally brought with colonialism, though Japan developed its own capitalism as a foil to Western colonial threats. This has brought greater prosperity to many, but also undermined traditional value-structures.

• Consumerism: a particularly virulent form of capitalism, currently perhaps the greatest corrosive force undermining Buddhism in Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand and more recently mainland China. Its commodification of life and emphasis on possessions has heightened elements of greed in human nature and it accordingly encourages a reorientation of values.

• Modernity: democracy, egalitarianism, secularization, improved communication and ease of travel.

Buddhist monarchs still exist in Thailand, Bhutan and now again in Cambodia, and Buddhism remains the dominant or largest religion of Sri Lanka, Thailand, Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Bhutan, Tibet, Mongolia, China, Taiwan and Japan. It retains a strong presence in South Korea, and is reviving in Nepal and on a small scale in India. Outside Asia, it has broken entirely new ground.