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37556 results in Cambridge Textbooks

Page 1498 of 1878

  • 4 - Internal energy, the First Law, heat, conservation of total energy, mass and energy balances, enthalpy, and heat capacities

  • Elias I. Franses, Purdue University, Indiana
  • Book:
    Thermodynamics with Chemical Engineering Applications
    Published online:
    28 May 2018
    Print publication:
    25 August 2014, pp 70-102

  • Summary

    INTERNAL ENERGY, U, THE FIRST LAW, AND HEAT

    Joule’s experiments. Evidence for the existence of internal energy

    It has been known for a long time that potential energy and kinetic energy can be “lost.” A rolling ball, eventually, stops and loses its kinetic energy. A car rolls for a while after its engine has stopped, and then stops. The concept of friction, by which the surfaces which are rubbed against each other are heated, is known. Joule did quantitative experiments, using measurements of the work used and of induced temperature changes. By using different types of work, he established their equivalence; and, finally, he developed a concrete hypothesis to explain the observations and the measurements.

    The first key experiment involved a pulley (Figure 4.1). On one side, there was a weight, W, which would be lowered by a controlled distance h, thus causing a controlled decrease in its potential energy, ΔEp(B1), and a controlled amount of work W = |ΔEp| = mgh on the body B1 on the other side (Figure 4.1(a)). That work caused an increase in the potential energy of body B2 by ΔEp(B2), as is known in mechanics. The magnitudes of the two changes are expected to be about the same, |ΔEp(B1)| = |ΔEp(B2)| = |W|, if friction effects in the pulley can be neglected. The work |W| can be also used to increase the kinetic energy ΔEk of body B2, if B2 is now a propeller or a “shaft” rotating inside a mass m of a fluid, e.g. liquid water (Figure 4.1(b)). In both cases, we have so-called “shaft work” Ws done on the body. For case (b), after some time the kinetic energy ΔEk of the water is “lost,” because of “frictional losses” or “viscous losses.” The state of the fluid also changes.

  • 6 - Applications of the mass and energy balances and the equations of state to several classes of thermodynamic problems

  • Elias I. Franses, Purdue University, Indiana
  • Book:
    Thermodynamics with Chemical Engineering Applications
    Published online:
    28 May 2018
    Print publication:
    25 August 2014, pp 139-180

  • Summary

    INTRODUCTION

    This chapter is quite technical and is designed primarily for science and engineering students and professionals who have interests in analyzing and designing processes and equipment involving mass transfer and energy transfer or change. In several examples, we will use concepts, equations, and background on mass and energy balances, and volume and thermal equations of state covered in Chapters 4 and 5. To follow this chapter, the reader should have some mastery of key concepts such as control volume, work, heat, internal energy, enthalpy, and heat capacities; should know about equations of state for ideal and nonideal gases; and should have a working knowledge of the use of the Saturated Steam Tables, used as an example of a biphasic system. The methodology that is used for problem solving emphasizes understanding of the basic concepts and key equations, and covers general strategies in solving classes of problems. Hence, once a reader has mastered how to solve a problem involving an ideal gas, he or she may be able to solve with a little extra effort a similar problem involving wet steam or a gas and a liquid. To succeed in learning and using this strategy, the reader should be experienced and comfortable with formulating, manipulating, and solving systems of algebraic equations and simple ordinary differential equations. Some examples of such problems were covered in Section 2.1.

    The non-specialist can browse through this chapter, too, to get an idea of the types of problems that are addressed with the previous chapters’ background, and to see many potential applications concerning heating, insulation, evaporation of liquids, flow through valves, and filling and emptying of tanks with gases or vapors.

  • 13 - Osmosis, osmotic pressure, osmotic equilibrium, and reverse osmosis

  • Elias I. Franses, Purdue University, Indiana
  • Book:
    Thermodynamics with Chemical Engineering Applications
    Published online:
    28 May 2018
    Print publication:
    25 August 2014, pp 315-324

  • Summary

    INTRODUCTION

    Osmotic pressure and the phenomena of osmosis and reverse osmosis are important in biology, medicine, and engineering. They are the basis of several water desalination and purification processes. Their existence is based on the thermodynamic implications of the First and Second Laws, in particular on how the chemical potential of the solvent (e.g. water) in a liquid solution varies with the pressure and the solvent (or solute) mole fraction. When one masters these principles, which are discussed in Chapter 9, one can understand these osmotic phenomena with little additional effort.

    A key concept here is the concept of a “semipermeable membrane,” which is permeable to the solvent (e.g. water) but not to the solute. There are many examples of semipermeable membranes, such as polymeric films that are hydrophobic, allowing the passage of organic molecules but not water. Other membranes allow passage of water but not inorganic salts or organic impurities. Such membranes are used for water purification. The lipid/protein membranes of biological cells are permeable to water but not to many electrolytes, the concentration of which is controlled by various proteins at the membrane surface. This property allows a cell to control the amount of water retained, which depends on the concentration of electrolytes (sodium chloride, etc.). As is commonly known, one feels more thirsty if one consumes a lot of salt, and drinking seawater makes someone even thirstier.

  • 2 - Problems and concepts at the interface of mechanics and thermodynamics

  • Elias I. Franses, Purdue University, Indiana
  • Book:
    Thermodynamics with Chemical Engineering Applications
    Published online:
    28 May 2018
    Print publication:
    25 August 2014, pp 14-46

  • Summary

    SPATIAL DISTRIBUTIONS IN GRAVITY OF PRESSURE, DENSITY, AND TEMPERATURE FOR LIQUIDS OR GASES

    For liquids, this problem of calculating pressure, density, and temperature distributions is important in the operation of liquid manometers, in diving, and in the adaptation of living creatures to conditions in the deep seas. For gases, it is important in meteorology, in the description of wind speeds and storms, in understanding the fate of pollutants from smokestacks, in the operation of airplanes, and in the design of pressurization in airplanes. When one is analyzing, formulating, or “solving” such problems, one aims at “predicting” these distributions, via increasingly complex mathematical and physical models, and comparing the predicted distributions with available data.

    Understanding how to analyze these problems is important pedagogically, because they help introduce the college student (and perhaps the high school student or science enthusiast) to the following issues: (i) where do thermodynamics and its principles come from?; (ii) how does thermodynamics supplement mechanics?; (iii) how does one formulate, in a systematic fashion, physical and mathematical models based on algebraic equations or differential/integral calculus?; (iv) how does one evaluate assumptions and approximations of models?; and (v) how does one solve problems in thermodynamics, mechanics, and engineering science using clear, definitive, and well-defined principles?

  • 14 - The Third Law and the molecular basis of the Second and Third Laws

  • Elias I. Franses, Purdue University, Indiana
  • Book:
    Thermodynamics with Chemical Engineering Applications
    Published online:
    28 May 2018
    Print publication:
    25 August 2014, pp 325-340

  • Summary

    INTRODUCTION

    So far, we have covered five new basic principles (axioms or postulates) of thermodynamics, in addition to the two principles of mechanics (mass conservation and Newton’s second law of motion). These principles are the following: (a) the existence of an equilibrium phase, or the “Minus Second Law,” see Chapter 3; (b) the existence of an equation of state for each thermodynamic phase, or the “Minus First Law,” see Chapter 3; (c) the existence of the empirical temperature θ as a function of state, associated with the “Zeroth Law,” see Chapter 3; (d) the existence of the internal energy U as a function of state, and the heat Q as a path-dependent function, and the expanded energy conservation principle, all associated with the “First Law,” see Chapter 4; and (e) the existence of the absolute thermodynamic temperature T and of the entropy S, as state functions, and the principle of entropy inequality, all associated with the “Second Law,” see Chapter 7. For any physical or chemical process to be possible, the mass and energy conservation principles and the entropy inequality principles must be satisfied.

    In the above principles the energy (U or Ek or Ep) is defined on a relative basis, not on an absolute basis, relative to an arbitrary value of energy at a reference state. The internal energy has a clear molecular basis. It is the combined kinetic energy and potential energy of the individual molecules comprising a given phase or system. The absolute temperature T is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules.

  • 2 - Rural health

  • Karen Francis, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, New South Wales, Ysanne Chapman, Central Queensland University, Carmel Davies, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, New South Wales
  • Book:
    Rural Nursing
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    22 August 2014, pp 18-33

  • Summary

    Learning objectives

    On completion of this chapter, the reader will be able to:

  • define ‘rurality’

  • describe rural and remote Australia as a place to live and work, highlighting recent changes in the economic, social and industrial fabric of rural and remote communities that impact on health

  • recognise the importance of rural and remote area nursing within the rural health workforce

  • identify the advantages and disadvantages of rural and remote area nursing and midwifery

  • create a resource bank of references and web links for readers to use in further exploring rural and remote area nursing in Australia.

    • Key words

  • Rurality, rural health, health workforce, rural nursing and midwifery, health status

    • Chapter overview

    This chapter contextualises ‘rurality’ as a criterion for classifying populations living in areas outside major cities. Differences in health status of rural compared to metropolitan communities are described, as is the composition of the health workforce. The chapter concludes with an overview of the rural nursing and midwifery workforce and the challenges these clinicians face in the delivery of care.

    Introduction

    Approximately 31% of the Australian population live outside major cities (e.g. capital cities or large regional centres with populations over 250 000). Only about 2% of this rural population live in what are considered to be ‘remote’ communities (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare [AIHW], 2012a). The percentage of the Australian population living in rural areas has declined considerably over the two centuries of white settlement. Much of this attrition has been caused by the merging of family farms (agribusiness) and young farmers leaving ‘the land’ to work and live in major centres (Smith, 2007). The economics of agriculture (e.g. the strong Australian dollar) and the increasing regulation of the industry have meant that the rural population has declined. Further, those still working in the agricultural sector represent an ageing workforce. This population decline and the ageing of the agricultural workforce have been a continuous feature of rural Australia and have occurred not only in livestock and grain industries but also in the fruit and vegetable industry (Smith, 2007; Sutherland, 2012).

  • 4 - The practice of rural nursing and midwifery

  • Karen Francis, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, New South Wales, Ysanne Chapman, Central Queensland University, Carmel Davies, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, New South Wales
  • Book:
    Rural Nursing
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    22 August 2014, pp 46-64

  • Summary

    Learning objectives

    On completion of this chapter, the reader will be able to:

  • describe the rural health workforce

  • discuss the role of a rural registered nurse or midwife

  • explain the challenges of practising as a registered nurse or midwife in a rural context

  • identify methods for ensuring currency of practice

  • explain cultural responsiveness and how this concept can be embedded in practice.

    • Key words

  • Rural nursing and midwifery, practice, workforce, education, recency of practice

    • Chapter overview

    This chapter focuses on rural nursing and midwifery practice. For the purposes of discussion, the context of rural practice will include remote area nursing practice encompassing a wide range of health services and settings, including small inpatient and multipurpose facilities, aged care, general practice and community health, outreach services, sole practitioner sites and locally controlled Aboriginal community health services (Francis & Mills, 2011). Nurses and midwives employed in rural and remote health services face numerous challenges that will be discussed.

    Introduction

    Australia, as highlighted in Chapter 1, is characterised as a large continent in which the majority of the population reside along the coastal perimeters and within urban or regional locations, with over two-thirds living in major cities (Baxter, Gray & Hayes, 2011). The population in rural and remote areas of Australia is small in comparison to the urban and regional areas of the continent (Baxter et al., 2011). Therefore, as the population dwindles in size, so do the resources available to these rural and remote populations. This affects the ability of an individual to receive the same health care as their urban counterparts (Carey, Wakerman, Humphreys, Buykx & Lindeman, 2013). The provision of healthcare professionals is another issue; it is often difficult to attract and maintain the services of healthcare providers in rural and remote areas of Australia (Yates, Kelly, Lindsay & Usher, 2013).

  • 8 - Living longer, living well

  • Karen Francis, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, New South Wales, Ysanne Chapman, Central Queensland University, Carmel Davies, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, New South Wales
  • Book:
    Rural Nursing
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    22 August 2014, pp 126-139

  • Summary

    Learning objectives

    On completion of this chapter, the reader will be able to:

  • empathise with older people in rural Australian communities

  • discuss the attitudes towards healthy ageing in rural communities and their association with living well

  • identify the role that lay carers play in support for older people with healthcare needs

  • identify the role that professional health services play in the maintenance of healthy lifestyles for older people in rural communities

  • appreciate the advantages for older people, their carers and family members of preparing advanced care directives.

    • Key words

  • Living well, chronic and complex care, self-care, health promotion, advanced care directives

    • Chapter overview

    This chapter provides a positive picture of living well as an older person in a rural community. It covers self-care and formal and informal support services for older people by profiling a fictional senior Australian, Sarah Atwood, as she becomes frail and in need of extra support.

    Introduction

    Community is a key word in rural living as it signals benefits of mateship, reciprocity and security. These are particularly valued aspects of rural living for older people and can make the difference between a contented old age and one full of ill-health, social isolation and insecurity. Active older people are the backbone of any rural community through the contribution of their time and talents to family life as informal and formal carers for partners, friends and family. They also get involved in politics, voluntary services, social networks and charities. Such activities keep people interested and involved and add substantially to feelings of self-worth and dignity, which are so necessary for mental health and wellbeing.

  • 6 - Childhood and adolescence in rural communities

  • Karen Francis, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, New South Wales, Ysanne Chapman, Central Queensland University, Carmel Davies, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, New South Wales
  • Book:
    Rural Nursing
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    22 August 2014, pp 86-106

  • Summary

    Learning objectives

    On completion of this chapter, the reader will be able to:

  • discuss the normal growth and development (developmental milestones) related to children in rural communities

  • define and identify common health issues related to children and adolescents in rural communities, including respiratory disorders, injury/accidents and burns

  • identify health promotion practices such as access to and application of appropriate screening tests as well as age-relevant immunisation requirements

  • briefly discuss issues relating to mental and sexual health in relation to adolescence in rural communities

  • describe and discuss access issues that children and adolescents in rural communities have in relation to accessing metropolitan health facilities.

    • Key words

  • Childhood conditions, mental health, adolescents, immunisation, growth and development

    • Chapter overview

    This chapter provides a brief snapshot of children and adolescents in varying contexts of practice in rural environments. Common childhood conditions and aspects of adolescent health will be presented in conjunction with case studies and reflective questions to facilitate practical application.

    Growth and development

    Factors affecting growth and development fall into two main categories: heredity and genetic and environmental factors. In the early prenatal environment, the uterus shields the foetus from external adverse conditions, which may include maternal nutritional deficiencies, metabolic or endocrine disturbances, infectious diseases such as rubella, Rh incompatibility, smoking, alcohol and drugs. In the postnatal period, the environment determines the pace and pattern of growth and development. During this time, nutrition, infections, trauma, socioeconomic level, climate, cultural influences, emotional factors, chronic diseases and growth potentials will lay the groundwork for development of the child.

Page 1498 of 1878