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38536 results in Cambridge Textbooks

Page 1542 of 1927

  • Chapter 8 - Experts and novices

  • Catherine Scott, University of Melbourne
  • Book:
    Learn to Teach
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    10 September 2014, pp 130-148

  • Summary

    Chapter objectives

  • Understanding the transformation of novice to expert

  • Models of the development of expertise

  • Novice and expert teaching

  • Propositional and procedural knowledge

  • The knowledge base of teaching

  • Perry’s theory of intellectual and ethical development

  • Thinking skills, creativity and other higher order attributes

  • Bloom’s Taxonomy

    • Introduction

    ‘The innocent eye is blind.’

    Nelson Goodman

    We have discussed at length how our minds are formed by the context in which we operate, and that cultural ways of thinking and understanding become our own cognitive tools. We have also discussed the importance of knowledge in the formation of our minds. Our thoughts are composed of what we have learned; and our ability to understand the world, make decisions, solve problems and predict outcomes are dependent on what we know. We have also looked briefly at how what can look like a cognitive deficit is frequently a knowledge or strategy deficit – people can have difficulty doing the work expected of them because they lack necessary background knowledge and/or understanding about how to manage their own problem solving and task performance.

    Remember that Piaget regarded children as cognitively different from adults and less capable than them in a variety of ways. These differences he saw as due to ‘hardwired’ developmental stages that all children pass through as they grow. Research has shown that these stages are neither universal nor invariant, but other findings also offer a more satisfactory explanation for the differences we see in young children’s thought. Young children commence their lives as novices in all aspects of human existence.

  • Chapter 2 - Culture and education

  • Catherine Scott, University of Melbourne
  • Book:
    Learn to Teach
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    10 September 2014, pp 30-47

  • Summary

    Chapter objectives

  • Cultural values and how these influence education

  • English-speaking cultures as being competitive individualist

  • Competition and education

    • Introduction: What do we value?

    The Introduction to this book noted the importance of understanding where the ideas that shape expectations about education and teaching come from. These are profoundly cultural in origin. It is worthwhile repeating that it is important for a teacher to understand the ‘where’ and ‘why’ of the expectations and demands placed upon the profession so that they are equipped to make informed decisions about whether and how to make changes to their practice.

    The ideas that underlie expectations of education do not occur as separate, isolated entities but as linked sets of concepts. Holding one value determines which others will be held, and also excludes the possibility of adhering to yet other sets of beliefs. This chapter will introduce a theory for understanding culture in the wider sense and will show how culture explains many of the current beliefs about education and how it should be conducted. One conclusion that can be drawn from this analysis is that teachers have a key role in keeping certain cultural values alive and protecting society against the extremes of our current, highly individualist, tendencies.

  • Chapter 6 - Memory processes: Making it stick

  • Catherine Scott, University of Melbourne
  • Book:
    Learn to Teach
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    10 September 2014, pp 97-112

  • Summary

    Chapter objectives

  • Attention and memory

  • Meta-memory

  • Growing memory

    • Introduction: May I have your attention?

    Have you ever wondered why your students can remember the jingle to every ad on television but have no clue about the lesson you taught them yesterday? My own personal version is: why can I remember the telephone number of a classmate I last called when I was in Year 10, but currently have no notion where I’ve put my sunglasses? It’s all to do with how we remember (that is, learn) or, so very often, do not. Let’s start backwards, however, with forgetting, rather than remembering.

    There are two main processes in the human memory system: storage/encoding and retrieval. When these fail, forgetting is the result. The meaning of these terms is pretty obvious; but broadly, storage refers to the retaining of information and retrieval to the location and reactivation of the remembered material. Both processes are very important for learning and thus of particular interest to teachers. Research into memory provides some clues about how to maximise children’s learning. And maybe it can also help you to stop forgetting where you left your phone.

    Attention and memory

    The first place that memory can let us down is at the point of transfer from WM to LTM. Remember that WM has a limited capacity and that information held in it decays rapidly unless something happens to transfer it to long-term memory LTM. Failure to pay attention at the key moment means that information may not even reach the WM, but if it does it will disappear without trace. This explains your repeated failure to remember where your phone is and it also explains why your students have no idea about the instructions or information that you just conveyed, or tried to convey: attention was elsewhere at the key moment.

  • Chapter 1 - Ideas that shape thinking about teaching and learning

  • Catherine Scott, University of Melbourne
  • Book:
    Learn to Teach
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    10 September 2014, pp 11-29

  • Summary

    Chapter objectives

  • What is teaching and what do we think we know about teaching?

  • Psychology’s contribution to knowledge about teaching

  • Inquiry learning

  • The social context of teaching

  • Culture and education

    • Introduction

    Much of what we think we know about learning is wrong.

    Reflection 1.1

    My father was a primary school teacher and for one reason or another I was enrolled, aged three, at the school where he was teaching. When he and I came home from school in the afternoon I would line up my dolls, my teddy and my two-year-old sister and ‘teach’ them. I must have had some success at this because one Saturday morning, while my father, sister and I were in a queue in the post office, my sister astonished the assembly by looking up at the perpetual calendar on the wall and proclaiming ‘S for snake, A for apple, T for Tommy’.

    Even three-year-olds, it would seem, know how to teach. Given that our species has relied on the passing down of knowledge from one generation to the next and appears to have done so quite successfully, people undoubtedly do understand something about how to teach, at least in a one-on-one situation, as it was with my sister and I in our ‘classroom’. The research evidence also suggests that human infants arrive ready-wired and indeed expecting to be taught. Even very young babies respond to signals from someone that information is about to be conveyed: they understand and respond appropriately to non-verbal indications that an instructive communication is about to commence (Csibra & Gergely, 2009).

  • Chapter 7 - Non-cognitive factors in school success

  • Catherine Scott, University of Melbourne
  • Book:
    Learn to Teach
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    10 September 2014, pp 113-129

  • Summary

    Chapter objectives

  • Explaining people and their actions

  • Attribution theory

  • Patterns of attribution

  • Stereotype threat

  • Carol Dweck’s theory of mindsets

  • Other non-cognitive factors: Persistence, reliability, self-discipline and grit

  • Other labels to be wary of: ‘Learning styles’

    • Introduction: More to success

    There is no doubt that a good level of g – general intelligence – makes for an easier time in the demanding environment that is the school classroom. There is also little doubt that g alone won’t guarantee success. There is plenty of evidence that results on intelligence tests are not necessarily the best predictors of how someone will do after school. So, there is more to succeeding in school and afterwards than a hefty g.

    Rethinking Terman’s study of gifted children

    We have discussed, in Chapter 4, American psychologist Lewis Terman’s work in developing an English-language version of Binet’s intelligence test (the ‘Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon Scale’). It was mentioned that Terman was convinced that intelligence is entirely genetic in origin. To explore this theory he ran a famous study, commenced in 1921, in which he followed sample groups of children, who had been identified as gifted, from childhood into mid-life. This study is often cited in support of the idea that life success is all about brainpower as measured on an IQ test. Certainly his sample group did very well in adulthood, with a solid record of creative and scientific achievement. They were also likely to have led stable lives, with a low rate of divorce; and their generally good adjustment and fine health, mental and physical, casts doubt on the stereotype of the gifted as being particularly, or indeed uniquely, vulnerable.

  • Introduction

  • Catherine Scott, University of Melbourne
  • Book:
    Learn to Teach
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    10 September 2014, pp 1-10

  • Summary

    What do you need to know, to teach well?

    What constitutes essential professional knowledge for teachers has been a topic for considerable debate. In Australia this has, at the time of writing, been settled through the implementation by the Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL) of the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers. The Australian Standards have much in common with others that have been developed around the world; for instance, they feature three domains that are similar in content in most constituencies that have adopted teacher standards.

    According to the Standards, the three domains of teaching are:

  • Professional knowledge

  • Professional practice

  • Professional engagement.

    • Each domain is further subdivided into individual standards. Professional knowledge is constituted by:

  • Knowledge of students and how they learn

  • Knowledge of content and how to teach it.

    • Professional practice is constituted by knowledge of how to:

  • Plan for and implement effective teaching and learning

  • Create and maintain supportive and safe learning environments

  • Assess, provide feedback and report on student learning.

    • Professional engagement is demonstrated by the capacity to:

  • Engage in professional learning

  • Engage professionally with colleagues, parents/carers and the community.

    • The Standards are a good summary of essential teacher knowledge; however, I believe that there is another body of knowledge that is required to help teachers to become independent professionals who understand the expectations of and pressures on their occupation and also to help teachers to act as advocates for their profession. That key additional knowledge is an awareness of the cultural context of teaching and the origins of the ideas that shape or attempt to shape teaching and schools. Schooling is generally regarded as highly significant because of the role that it plays in moulding future citizens and thus society itself. Unsurprisingly there are as many prescriptions for getting education ‘right’ as there are for what constitutes a good society. A well-informed teacher should understand at least a little of the origin of these ideas, the better to recognise them when they come knocking disguised as the latest policy prescription, criticism of teaching or demand on schools.

  • Chapter 4 - Intelligence

  • Catherine Scott, University of Melbourne
  • Book:
    Learn to Teach
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    10 September 2014, pp 64-81

  • Summary

    Chapter objectives

  • Theories of intelligence

  • Culture fair tests

  • One ability or many?

  • The Cattell-Horn-Carroll Model

  • Sternberg

  • The Flynn effect

    • Introduction

    ‘It’s not just in the genes.’

    James Flynn

    I’d like you to take a moment to think about intelligence and how we know if someone is ‘smart’.

    It’s a trick question. Eminent American theorist on intelligence Robert Sternberg has noted: ‘Viewed narrowly, there seem to be almost as many definitions of intelligence as there were experts asked to define it’.

    Theories about IQ (intelligence quotient) abound – what it is, how it is structured, how much is innate, and how much is the result of experience. These debates and disagreements have not stopped people from attempting to measure it. If you haven’t studied the theories about and measurement of intelligence, you will be forgiven for believing that the debate over the roles of heredity versus experience has been settled in favour of the former. The ‘common-sense’ model of intelligence that prevails is that it’s all about genes – good genes equals big IQ; however, many of those who study intelligence would disagree.

    While there is some good evidence that brain-based attributes influence aspects of intelligence, there is also a fund of findings that support intelligence (or what we define as intelligence) as being a culturally shaped set of cognitive tools.

  • Chapter 5 - Cognitive tools in the classroom

  • Catherine Scott, University of Melbourne
  • Book:
    Learn to Teach
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    10 September 2014, pp 82-96

  • Summary

    Chapter objectives

  • Understanding the structure of human memory

  • Sensory memory

  • Working memory

  • Working memory in the classroom

  • Tracking down g

  • Long-term memory

  • How school improves memory

    • Introduction

    In this chapter we will discover something about how the human cognitive system – that is, the mind – works, with a focus on memory. Understanding memory will help you to use teaching methods that ensure your students learn well. Learning is memory, after all, so understanding how it works is essential for educators.

    Memory is the essence of what it means to be human. Our identity depends on our fund of personal memories; and our ability to imagine ourselves in the future and our ability to plan for that future depend on what we have learned and remembered. Much of what we know about memory, how it is structured and how it works is the result of studying cases where people have suffered illnesses or brain injuries that have affected their memories. In many of these cases, the experience of being human is profoundly altered and disrupted by the damage to their memory processes or structures.

    Structures and processes

    Theories about how memory works use two sets of explanatory concepts: structures and processes. Structures are used to explain where material contained in memory is stored, while processes explain how material enters, is retained in and then retrieved from these storage modules.

  • Chapter 3 - Natural pedagogy

  • Catherine Scott, University of Melbourne
  • Book:
    Learn to Teach
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    10 September 2014, pp 48-63

  • Summary

    Chapter objectives

  • Nature and nurture: What makes us human?

  • Vygotsky and the role of culture

  • The role of schooling

  • Language and learning

  • The Zone of Proximal Development

  • Culture and school

    • Introduction: Nature and nurture – yes, again

    Our society has, as has been discussed, two central grand ideas that are used to validate our beliefs, help decide between courses of action and generally make sense of the world. We look to science for guidance, but we also value the natural very highly. Indeed science is understood as the formal search for the laws of nature. Often placed in opposition to nature are things that are believed to be artificial – chiefly, human culture. In some traditions of debate that have influenced educational thought, describing cultural practices or beliefs as ‘socially constructed’ is regarded as sufficient to dismiss their validity.

    Early attempts to understand how children develop and how their minds grow were framed by this belief: science must uncover the natural trajectory of human growth. Chapter 1 discussed how this lay behind Piaget’s attempts to chart human cognitive growth, and how it goes a long way to explaining why his ideas are still current, despite the body of evidence that shows that his depiction of the human child as progressing through a universal series of stages is incorrect. Also inaccurate is his depiction of the child as a sort of lonely scientist discovering the world for himself (choice of gender deliberate). The latter idea featured strongly in his theories for, ironically, thoroughly cultural reasons. Western societies were already strongly individualist, and the ‘self-made man’ was a cultural icon.

  • Chapter 9 - Teaching unplugged: Talk for learning

  • Catherine Scott, University of Melbourne
  • Book:
    Learn to Teach
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    10 September 2014, pp 149-166

  • Summary

    Chapter objectives

  • Social psychology and classroom practice

  • Nurturing autonomy

  • Classroom talk that builds cognitive skills

  • Effective talk

  • Types of talk

  • Dialogic teaching

    • Introduction

    For several decades now there has been a trend to see teaching as inevitably lacking unless it uses a variety of technological devices, the list of which changes as new gadgets enter the market. There’s no doubt that computers and other electronic devices can be very handy tools, but it is possible to teach very effectively without them. Similarly, teaching can facilitate learning very well without a range of gimmicky programs. This is not meant to give you permission to ignore innovations so much as it is a plea for you to remember that teaching is fundamentally about human relations and thus about what happens between you and your class, with or without a computer in the room.

    Language is the teacher’s primary tool, no matter what new technologies appear on the market. We have already seen how language is the main mediator in human learning – in other words, it is the main means by which the tools of a culture become the cognitive tools of an individual. By understanding how language is used in the classroom and how to use it more effectively, you can become better both at classroom management and at helping your students to learn curriculum content and develop their cognitive skills. It’s all in how you talk and how you encourage your students to speak.

  • Chapter 10 - Assessment and feedback: Teaching’s engine room

  • Catherine Scott, University of Melbourne
  • Book:
    Learn to Teach
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    10 September 2014, pp 167-187

  • Summary

    Chapter objectives

  • Assessment: what is it? What are the characteristics of good assessment practices?

  • The three main types: Formative assessment; summative assessment; diagnostic feedback

  • Designing assessment

  • Feedback

  • Levels of feedback

    • Introduction

    Think for a moment about a time you learned a skill from a friend or relative – that is, not in a classroom. The skill might have been knitting, bowling a cricket ball, using a sewing machine, using a drill or riding a bike. What was that experience like? What were the most valuable things about the experience?

    It is very likely that, for many, the most valuable aspects of any one-on-one learning experience will have been knowing the intended outcome of your learning, and having someone watching as you attempted the skill, providing instant feedback about how you were progressing towards the mutually understood goal. The first characteristic allowed you to have ownership of your learning, to make it ‘self-directed’. The second helped you to make constant adjustments to your technique and thus to avoid the embedding of the types of errors mentioned in the chapter on expertise, which create the ‘expert novice’ whose skill plateaus and becomes resistant to improvement. (That is, of course, as long as your instructor was proficient at the skill being taught.)

    Put in the language of education, you were an ‘autonomous learner’ and your ‘skills instructor’ was employing assessment and feedback to help you to learn and improve your skills. Good teachers know that assessment does more than measure what children have learned: it also provides feedback to both teacher and student on how students are faring. It allows for constant adjustment to the teacher’s practice and the learning strategies that students employ.

  • 2 - Words and their parts

  • Edited by Ralph W. Fasold, Georgetown University, Washington DC, Jeff Connor-Linton, Georgetown University, Washington DC
  • Book:
    An Introduction to Language and Linguistics
    Published online:
    28 May 2018
    Print publication:
    04 September 2014, pp 63-104

  • Summary

    Chapter preview

    This chapter introduces the subject of morphology, the study of the internal structure of words and their meaningful parts. Morphological processes accomplish two basic purposes: (1) to create new words in a language and (2) to modify existing words. We may associate a word with a certain basic idea, image or event, but modifying the exact form of a word can also contribute important information, such as who is participating in an event, when or how it occurred, or something about the speaker’s attitude toward it. The more complex the word, the more information of this sort it is likely to convey. By manipulating various parts of a word, we can shade, intensify, or even negate its basic meaning, or change its grammatical role within a sentence. Different languages, of course, have different ways of doing this.

    GOALS

    The goals of this chapter are to:

  • introduce key concepts in the study of complex word analysis

  • provide a concise description of some of the varied morphological phenomena found among the world’s languages

  • illustrate methods used to derive and support linguistic generalizations about word structure in particular languages

  • touch briefly on how knowledge of complex word forms comes to be acquired

Page 1542 of 1927