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38520 results in Cambridge Textbooks

Page 1595 of 1926

  • 9 - Queueing theory in continuous time

  • from II - Performance analysis
  • R. Srikant, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Lei Ying, Arizona State University
  • Book:
    Communication Networks
    Published online:
    30 January 2019
    Print publication:
    14 November 2013, pp 229-289

  • Summary

    We have learned about Discrete-Time Markov Chains (DTMCs) and discrete-time queueing systems in Chapter 3. In this chapter, we will look at continuous-time queueing systems, which were first developed to analyze telephone networks but has broader applications in communication networks, manufacturing, and transportation. The focus of this chapter is on the basics of continuous-time queueing theory and its application to communication networks. As in the case of discrete-time queueing systems, continuous-time queueing systems will be analyzed by relating them to Markov chains. For this purpose, we will first introduce Continuous-Time Markov Chains (CTMCs) and related concepts, such as the global balance equation, the local balance equation, and the Foster–Lyapunov theorem for CTMCs. Then, we will introduce and study simple queueing models including the M/M/1 queue, the M/GI/1 queue, the GI/GI/1 queue, and the Jackson network, as well as important concepts such as reversibility and insensitivity to service time distributions. Finally, we will relate CTMCs and queueing theory to the study of connection-level stability in the Internet, distributed admission control, telephone networks, and P2P file-sharing protocols. The following questions will be answered in this chapter.

  • • Under what conditions does a CTMC have a stationary distribution, and how should it be computed if it exists?

  • • What are the mean delays and queue lengths of simple queueing models?

  • • What is the reverse chain ofa CTMC, and how does the concept of reversibility help the calculation of the stationary distributions of queueing networks?

  • • How should CTMCs and queueing theory be used to model and analyze communication networks, including the Internet, telephone networks, and P2P networks?

  • 7 - Network protocols

  • from I - Network architecture and algorithms
  • R. Srikant, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Lei Ying, Arizona State University
  • Book:
    Communication Networks
    Published online:
    30 January 2019
    Print publication:
    14 November 2013, pp 165-194

  • Summary

    In this chapter, we explore the relationship between the algorithms discussed in the previous chapters and the protocols used in the Internet and wireless networks today. We will first discuss protocols used in the wired Internet, and then discuss protocols used in wireless networks.

    It is important to note that Internet congestion control protocols were not designed using the optimization formulation of the resource allocation problem discussed earlier. The predominant concern while designing these protocols was to minimize the risk of congestion collapse, i.e., large-scale buffer overflows, and hence they tended to be rather conservative in their behaviors. Even though the current Internet protocols were not designed with clearly defined fairness and stability ideas in mind, they bear a strong resemblance to the ideas of fair resource allocation that we have discussed so far. In fact, the utility maximization methods presented earlier provide a solid framework that could be for understanding the operation of these congestion control algorithms. Further, going forward, the utility maximization approach seems like a natural candidate framework that could be used to modify existing protocols to adapt to the evolution of the Internet as it continues to grow faster.

    In our earlier discussion on network utility maximization for the Internet, we assumed that routes are Axed. In this chapter, we discuss how the Internet chooses a route for each source-destination pair. Further, we also discuss the addressing protocol used in the Internet which allows one to implement routing protocols.

  • 8 - Peer-to-peer networks

  • from I - Network architecture and algorithms
  • R. Srikant, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Lei Ying, Arizona State University
  • Book:
    Communication Networks
    Published online:
    30 January 2019
    Print publication:
    14 November 2013, pp 195-226

  • Summary

    As we have seen so far, the Internet is a collection of physical links and routers that communicate with each other using a common set of protocols. Many applications run on top of this physical network. Some of these applications involve a collection of computers (called peers), which form a logical overlay network on top of the physical Internet. When communication takes place between the peers, the underlying physical network is transparent to them, and so the communication appears as though it takes place between the peers without the participation of any intermediate nodes. Hence, these types of networks are called Peer-to-Peer (P2P) networks.

    Typically, P2P networks are used for high bandwidth data transfer due to its scalability. In a traditional client-server system, the capacity of the system is limited by the bandwidth of the server. In a P2P network, peers upload data to other peers while receiving the data, so the network capacity increases with the number of peers. In this chapter, we will introduce three P2P applications: Distributed Hash Tables (DHTs), file-sharing applications, and streaming systems. A DHT protocol is a distributed database which stores (key, value) pairs at participating peers and facilitates the retrieval of content location. In filesharing applications, peers who are interested in the same content (such as a movie or a music file) exchange content pieces among themselves.

  • 11 - Geometric random graph models of wireless networks

  • from II - Performance analysis
  • R. Srikant, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Lei Ying, Arizona State University
  • Book:
    Communication Networks
    Published online:
    30 January 2019
    Print publication:
    14 November 2013, pp 323-339

  • Summary

    In earlier chapters, we considered distributed resource allocation algorithms for ad hoc wireless networks. We showed that there exist algorithms, called throughput-optimal algorithms, that maximize the network throughput. However, we do not yet have a simple expression for the total amount of information that can be transferred in an ad hoc wireless network. The problem of computing such an expression is challenging due to interference caused by simultaneous wireless transmissions. This chapter focuses on understanding the limitations on network throughput imposed by wireless interference. We will introduce geometric random graph models of wireless networks, in which n wireless nodes are distributed over a geographical area. Two nodes can communicate if the distance between them is smaller than a threshold and if no nodes near the receiver are transmitting at the same time. The capacity region of such a network is difficult to characterize exactly. Therefore, we will study the network capacity when the number of wireless nodes becomes large. We will show that, in such an asymptotic regime, one can obtain expressions for the network capacity that are asymptotically correct in a sense that will be made precise. A key insight of this chapter is that the throughput per source diminishes as the number of wireless nodes (in a fixed geographical area) increases because of wireless interference. The following questions will be addressed in this chapter.

  • What is the maximum achievable throughput in a network of n wireless nodes distributed over a geographical area, and how does the maximum throughput scale with the number of wireless nodes?

  • What algorithms should be used to achieve the maximum throughput?

  • 2 - Mathematics of Internet architecture

  • from I - Network architecture and algorithms
  • R. Srikant, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Lei Ying, Arizona State University
  • Book:
    Communication Networks
    Published online:
    30 January 2019
    Print publication:
    14 November 2013, pp 7-48

  • Summary

    In this chapter, we will develop a mathematical formulation of the problem of resource allocation in the Internet. A large communication network such as the Internet can be viewed as a collection of communication links shared by many sources. Congestion control algorithms are protocols that allocate the available network resources in a fair, distributed, and stable manner among the sources. In this chapter, we will introduce the network utility maximization formulation for resource allocation in the Internet, where each source is associated with a utility function Ur(xr), and xr is the transmission rate allocated to source r. The goal of fair resource allocation is to maximize the net utility Σr Ur (xr) subject to resource constraints. We will derive distributed, congestion control algorithms that solve the network utility maximization problem. In a later chapter, we will discuss the relationship between the mathematical models developed in this chapter to transport layer protocols used in the Internet. Optimality and stability of the congestion control algorithms will be established using convex optimization and control theory. We will also introduce a game-theoretical view of network utility maximization and study the impact of strategic users on the efficiency of network utility maximization. Finally, routing and IP addressing will be discussed. The following key questions will be answered in this chapter.

  • • What is fair resource allocation?

  • • How do we use convex optimization and duality to design distributed resource allocation algorithms to achieve a fair and stable resource allocation?

  • • What are the game-theoretic implications offair resource allocation?

  • 6 - Back to network utility maximization

  • from I - Network architecture and algorithms
  • R. Srikant, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Lei Ying, Arizona State University
  • Book:
    Communication Networks
    Published online:
    30 January 2019
    Print publication:
    14 November 2013, pp 142-164

  • Summary

    In Chapter 5, we looked at scheduling in wireless networks, where the focus was to design a scheduling algorithm that can support any traffic strictly within the capacity region. Implicitly, we assumed that data flows were regulated by congestion control so the incoming traffic was always within the capacity region. However, in practice, the behavior of congestion control algorithms themselves may be affected by scheduling algorithms. For example, a dual congestion control algorithm which reacts to delays, so the source rates would be regulated based on queueing delays, which could be quite different under different scheduling algorithms. Therefore, to achieve fair resource allocation in wireless networks, we need to revisit the network utility maximization formulation introduced in Chapter 2. In Chapter 2, we assumed that routes from sources to their destinations are given. In this chapter, we will study a more general model in which routes are not given and are part of the resource allocation decision process. We will consider the network utility maximization problem for wireless networks, and answer the following questions.

  • • How should the Lagrangian duality to derive joint congestion control, routing, and scheduling algorithms that maximize the sum network utility be used?

  • • How should the performance of the joint algorithms using discrete-time Markov chains be analyzed?

  • • What is the difference between the network utility maximization formulation for the Internet and that for wireless networks, and what is the rationale behind the difference?

  • • What is the relationship between proposed models/algorithms and practical MAC/physical layer protocols?

  • 14 - Clinical applications

  • C. Mauli Agrawal, University of Texas, San Antonio, Joo L. Ong, University of Texas, San Antonio, Mark R. Appleford, University of Texas, San Antonio, Gopinath Mani, University of South Dakota
  • Book:
    Introduction to Biomaterials
    Published online:
    01 February 2019
    Print publication:
    07 November 2013, pp 375-398

  • Summary

    Goals

    After reading this chapter, students will understand the following.

  • Advantages of different biomaterials used in clinical applications.

  • Rationale for use of the different biomaterials in clinical applications.

  • Role of biomedical engineers in medicine.

    • In today’s healthcare industry, synthetic and natural biomaterials are being introduced into the human body at an increasing rate. In the United States alone, several million biomaterial-based implants or devices are used for human patients each year. It is not uncommon to find that many of the biomaterials used today were first introduced for industrial applications other than medicine. In order to protect and promote public health, all biomaterials used by the medical device industry have to meet numerous stringent criteria required by regulatory agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration in the USA. These stringent criteria include material properties, preparation and sterilization of the materials, biocompatibility, and short-term and long-term issues related to the use of the material for a specific application. With these protections in place, reasons for the conventional use of biomaterials in clinics and hospitals include:

  • treating in order to return to normalcy,

  • repairing in order to reinstate organ function, and

  • restoring in order to retain or modify organ shape or form.

  • 5 - Metals: structure and properties

  • C. Mauli Agrawal, University of Texas, San Antonio, Joo L. Ong, University of Texas, San Antonio, Mark R. Appleford, University of Texas, San Antonio, Gopinath Mani, University of South Dakota
  • Book:
    Introduction to Biomaterials
    Published online:
    01 February 2019
    Print publication:
    07 November 2013, pp 113-133

  • Summary

    Goals

    After reading this chapter the student will understand the following.

  • Structure and properties of metals commonly used for making biomedical implants and devices.

  • Use of different metals as biomaterials.

    • Metals are extensively used as materials for biomedical implants, devices, and surgical tools. Some of the implants made from metals are shown in Figure 5.1. For example, metals are used for orthopedic reconstructions (implants for artificial hip, knee, shoulder, and elbow joints), fracture fixation (plates, pins, screws, rods, and nails), oral and maxillofacial reconstructions (dental implants and mini-plates), and cardiovascular interventions (stents, heart valves, and pacemakers). In general, metals used for biomedical applications should exhibit the following properties:

  • high corrosion resistance,

  • biocompatibility,

  • high wear resistance,

  • excellent mechanical properties.

    • Most metallic biomaterials have a stable surface oxide layer that enhances their corrosion resistance properties. It is believed that the presence of this stable surface oxide layer is key to the biocompatibility of metals. The mechanical properties of the metal are important and should satisfy the requirements of the specific application in the body. For instance, when a metal is used to augment a bone, the elastic modulus of the metal should be ideally equivalent to that of the bone. If the elastic modulus of the metal is greater than that of bone, then the load experienced by the bone is reduced due to a phenomenon known as stress shielding. This can cause the bone to remodel to adjust to the lower load and eventually result in the loss of bone quality. In another example, stainless steel is commonly used for making coronary stents due to its well-suited mechanical properties. Stainless steel has good radial strength (due to its high elastic modulus of ~190 GPa), low recoil, good expandability, and sufficient flexibility, which makes it a highly preferred metal for making stents. Several metals such as titanium, stainless steel, cobalt–chromium alloys, nitinol (nickel–titanium alloy), tantalum, and magnesium have been used for a variety of clinical applications, with titanium, stainless steel, and cobalt–chromium alloys being the most commonly used metals. This chapter describes the structure and properties of these metals.

  • 1 - Introduction

  • C. Mauli Agrawal, University of Texas, San Antonio, Joo L. Ong, University of Texas, San Antonio, Mark R. Appleford, University of Texas, San Antonio, Gopinath Mani, University of South Dakota
  • Book:
    Introduction to Biomaterials
    Published online:
    01 February 2019
    Print publication:
    07 November 2013, pp 1-18

  • Summary

    Goals

    After reading this chapter the student will understand the following.

  • History of implants and biomaterials.

  • Various definitions for biomaterials.

  • Different types of chemical bonds.

  • Basic families of materials.

  • Future directions for the progress in biomaterials.

    • The Rig Veda, one of the four sacred Sanskrit books of ancient India that were compiled between 3500 and 1800 BC, relates the story of a warrior queen named Vishpla, who lost a leg in battle and was fitted with an iron leg after the wound healed. There is also mention of lacerated limbs treated with sutures. Sushruta, a renowned Indian physician from circa 600 BC, wrote a very comprehensive treatise describing various ailments as well as surgical techniques. His technique for nose reconstruction using a rotated skin flap is still used in modern times. Sutures made of vegetable fibers, leather, tendons, and horse hair were commonly used in his time. There are also reports of the use of linen sutures in Egypt 4000 years ago.

    These ancient records show that, since time immemorial, humans have tried to restore the function of limbs or organs that have ceased to perform adequately due to trauma or disease. Often, this was attempted through the use of materials either made or shaped by humans and used external to the body. These were the earliest form of biomaterials. Although examples of successful external prosthetic devices can be found in history, materials placed inside the body, also known as implants, were usually not viable due to infection. This changed in the 1860s with the advent of aseptic surgical techniques introduced by Dr. J. Lister. The discovery of antibiotics in the mid 1900s also reduced the incidence of infections related to surgery. Today, implants are very successful and are used in a wide variety of applications in the practice of medicine, improving the quality of life for millions and saving countless lives. However, the successes of today have come after a long history of trial and error and scientific endeavor.

  • 9 - Surface modification

  • C. Mauli Agrawal, University of Texas, San Antonio, Joo L. Ong, University of Texas, San Antonio, Mark R. Appleford, University of Texas, San Antonio, Gopinath Mani, University of South Dakota
  • Book:
    Introduction to Biomaterials
    Published online:
    01 February 2019
    Print publication:
    07 November 2013, pp 233-281

  • Summary

    Goals

    After reading this chapter, students will understand the following.

  • Main categories of the different surface modification techniques commonly used to engineer biomaterial surfaces.

  • Principles underlying these surface modification techniques.

  • Advantages and limitations of each technique.

    • Despite the advent of advanced manufacturing tools and newly developed materials with unique properties, why is the attention of biomedical scientists and engineers focused on biomaterial surfaces? Unlike the material’s bulk, which generally governs the mechanical integrity of medical devices, the material’s surface governs tissue–biomaterial interactions and these usually occur within a narrow depth of less than 1 nm on the material’s surface. Surface modification of biomaterials allows the tailoring of surface properties without affecting bulk material properties. These altered surface properties influence tissue–biomaterial interactions, which ultimately determine the success or failure of a device placed in the human body. In addition to improving tissue–biomaterial interactions, modification of biomaterial surfaces may also be performed for the purpose of improving surface mechanical properties such as wear resistance. This can be achieved through surface or subsurface alloying, or heat treatment. Enhancement of surface oxide thickness or the presence of a dense protective coating on a metallic surface can provide surface barriers which minimize the metal’s chemical reactions with its surroundings, thereby improving its corrosion resistance. Thus, through surface modification, the native surfaces of biomaterials can be physically or chemically transformed with the primary goal of engineering desired surface chemistry, topography, reactivity, biocompatibility, hydrophilicity, or charge.

  • 4 - Characterization of biomaterials

  • C. Mauli Agrawal, University of Texas, San Antonio, Joo L. Ong, University of Texas, San Antonio, Mark R. Appleford, University of Texas, San Antonio, Gopinath Mani, University of South Dakota
  • Book:
    Introduction to Biomaterials
    Published online:
    01 February 2019
    Print publication:
    07 November 2013, pp 74-112

  • Summary

    Goals

    After reading this chapter the student will understand the following.

  • The principles underlying various instruments typically used for the characterization of biomaterials.

  • The use of different instruments for biomaterials characterization.

    • During the development phase of any medical devices or implants, it is essential that the biomaterials used are thoroughly characterized. The material’s surface properties are important because it is the implant’s surface where the body’s biology and the material first interact. On the other hand, the bulk properties of the material determine its mechanical and physical behavior and its long-term viability. Of course, the material’s chemical properties influence its stability, biocompatibility, and the body’s reaction to it. Since a material possesses different physical and chemical properties, the analytical instruments used for characterizing these properties can be broadly classified under the following three categories:

  • surface characterization,

  • bulk characterization, and

  • chromatographic analysis.

    • The use of multiple characterization techniques is essential for complete analysis of the surface and bulk properties of a biomaterial. When a material is implanted in the body, protein adsorption almost instantaneously occurs on the material surface. Hence, the cells do not directly interact with the material surface but only through the layer of proteins adsorbed on the surface. This adsorption of proteins is governed by a combination of different surface characteristics of the material including surface energy, surface chemistry, surface texture, and surface roughness. The use of contact angle measurement provides information about the material’s surface energy, whereas Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) provide information on the material’s surface chemistry at different depths. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) provides details about the material’s surface texture, whereas atomic force microscopy (AFM) allows for measurement of the material’s surface roughness. Thus, data collection using different analytical instruments provides in-depth information regarding the material’s surface and assists in predicting how surface properties would influence the biological outcome.

  • 12 - Drug delivery systems

  • C. Mauli Agrawal, University of Texas, San Antonio, Joo L. Ong, University of Texas, San Antonio, Mark R. Appleford, University of Texas, San Antonio, Gopinath Mani, University of South Dakota
  • Book:
    Introduction to Biomaterials
    Published online:
    01 February 2019
    Print publication:
    07 November 2013, pp 321-340

  • Summary

    Goals

    After reading this chapter the student should understand the following.

  • The fundamentals and importance of drug delivery systems.

  • How various different types of controlled drug delivery systems work.

    • Therapeutic drugs play a significant role in the therapy of almost all medical problems. From the treatment of common ailments such as headaches, and colds, to the reduction of fever, fighting infection, reducing cholesterol and blood pressure, and treating cancer, drugs play a major role in medicine. The systems used for delivering drugs take on a variety of forms. These include simple oral systems such as tablets, capsules, and syrups, transdermal systems like ointments and patches, and intravenous delivery using suspensions or nanoparticles.

    In order for a drug to provide a therapeutic effect, the concentration of the drug in the blood plasma has to be above the minimum effective level and below the level that may be toxic. The difference between the minimum effective level and the toxic level is called the therapeutic index. As shown in Figure 12.1a, when the drug is conventionally administered as a single dose and is metabolized quickly inside the body, the level of drug in the blood plasma immediately increases followed by an exponential decrease. In such a conventional administration of the drug, the time frame over which the drug concentration is above the minimum effective level may not be long enough to produce a significant therapeutic effect in a single dose. Although this situation can be improved by increasing the amount of dose, this quickly raises the drug level to the toxic region. The alternative is to administer doses at regular intervals (Figure 12.1b). However, this method too has limitations, such as:

  • the drug level in blood plasma is irregular and fluctuates with a high ratio of peak-tovalley concentrations, and

  • the patient compliance is often poor.

  • 6 - Polymers

  • C. Mauli Agrawal, University of Texas, San Antonio, Joo L. Ong, University of Texas, San Antonio, Mark R. Appleford, University of Texas, San Antonio, Gopinath Mani, University of South Dakota
  • Book:
    Introduction to Biomaterials
    Published online:
    01 February 2019
    Print publication:
    07 November 2013, pp 134-164

  • Summary

    Goals

    After reading this chapter the student will understand the following.

  • Structure of polymers and their common physical states.

  • General properties of polymers.

  • Common types of polymerization techniques used for production.

  • Chemical structure and properties of common biomedical polymers.

  • Structure of hydrogels and their general properties.

  • Definition and uses of nanopolymers.

    • In everyday life, we encounter a variety of polymers, some natural and others synthetic. The vast majority of these are carbon-based in nature. They range from synthetic polymers seen in products such as polyethylene grocery bags, polymethylmethacrylate-based window panes, and polystyrene-based eating utensils, to natural polymers such as starch, cellulose and rubber. Polymers used as biomaterials are often similar to these common materials. For example, the polymer most extensively used in total joint prostheses is ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene – chemically identical to the material used for plastic bags, although having a much higher molecular weight. The same is true for bone cement which is used in conjunction with bone surgery and Plexiglass®, which is used for window panes. Both of these materials are polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA). Of course, any polymer that is used as an implant has to meet strict safety standards as required by governmental and other regulatory agencies and has to be virtually contaminant free.

  • 10 - Sterilization of biomedical implants

  • C. Mauli Agrawal, University of Texas, San Antonio, Joo L. Ong, University of Texas, San Antonio, Mark R. Appleford, University of Texas, San Antonio, Gopinath Mani, University of South Dakota
  • Book:
    Introduction to Biomaterials
    Published online:
    01 February 2019
    Print publication:
    07 November 2013, pp 282-294

  • Summary

    Goals

    After reading this chapter, students should understand the following.

  • Fundamentals and importance of sterilization.

  • Different types of sterilization methods commonly used.

  • Principles behind determining the type of sterilization method suitable for an application.

    • The world around us is full of microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and viruses. These microorganisms are present in the atmosphere, on the surface of all objects, and even on our own skin. In the process of manufacturing an implantable medical device, there is always a possibility of contaminating the device surface with microorganisms. As required by regulatory agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), it is mandatory to sterilize all devices prior to implantation. The goal of sterilization is to render the implant devoid of all potential infection-causing organisms, making it one of the most important steps in the manufacturing process of biomedical devices. In this chapter, the basic terminology associated with sterilization such as bioburden and sterility assurance level is explained. In addition, commonly employed sterilization methods such as steam sterilization, ethylene oxide sterilization, and gamma radiation sterilization are described along with various other new and old sterilization methods. The suitability of these methods for sterilizing different biomaterials is also discussed.

  • 2 - Basic properties of materials

  • C. Mauli Agrawal, University of Texas, San Antonio, Joo L. Ong, University of Texas, San Antonio, Mark R. Appleford, University of Texas, San Antonio, Gopinath Mani, University of South Dakota
  • Book:
    Introduction to Biomaterials
    Published online:
    01 February 2019
    Print publication:
    07 November 2013, pp 19-47

  • Summary

    Goals

    After reading this chapter the student will understand the following.

  • The mechanical properties and behavior of materials.

  • Material failure under ductile or brittle conditions.

  • The time-dependent mechanical behavior of materials.

  • Corrosion and its various forms.

  • Concepts related to the basic surface properties of materials.

    • In everyday life, we often define materials using relative terms such as soft or hard, flexible or rigid, strong or weak, tough or brittle, and in a variety of other qualitative ways. What do these terms really mean in the world of engineering? Is such qualitative categorization sufficient for the design and manufacture of a product? The answer is definitely a no, especially when human health or lives may depend on the product. For example, you certainly would not want engineers who are building bridges to pick materials based on such relative and qualitative descriptions! Choices based on much more rigorous, scientific, and quantitative characterization would be expected. The same is true when selecting biomaterials.

    Material properties can be characterized quantitatively using standardized tests under defined conditions. Once characterized, these properties can be used in conjunction with engineering design techniques to predict the behavior of the engineered product under the expected operating conditions and to ensure that it would function safely. This is important because properties may change based on independent variables such as temperature or rate of application of force. Often a variety of material properties need to be considered for each product.

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