Helen has often been misunderstood and undervalued because of its apparent refusal to follow the ‘rules’ of its genre, yet in fact it embodies the variety and dynamism of fifth-century Athenian tragedy perhaps more than any other surviving play. The story of an exemplary wife (not an adulteress) who went to Egypt (not to Troy), Euripides' ‘new Helen’ skilfully transforms and supplants earlier currents of literature and myth. Nevertheless, Euripides uses his unorthodox heroine and her phantom double to explore many of the central issues connected to her more traditional self: the role of the gods in human suffering, the limits of mortal knowledge, the importance of reputation, the consequences of overwhelming beauty and desire, among others. By turns playful and serious, Helen is an extraordinarily exuberant and inventive drama that deserves to be read (and performed) more widely. To that end, this edition of the play aims to discuss a broad spectrum of issues (intellectual context, stagecraft, language, style, reception, etc.) in an easily accessible manner. Like many other tragedies, Helen has suffered from being interpreted anachronistically: as a tragicomedy, for example, or as an indictment of war; the Introduction therefore seeks to reconstruct the original audience's core values and expectations as a more accurate guide to understanding the play. As a result, the Introduction is comparatively long for this series, but the many preconceptions about Helen (and Euripidean tragedy more generally) therein addressed are of such pervasive and continuing influence as to merit detailed analysis.

In our study of mass transfer, we noted that both technically feasible analysis and design were complicated by the need to estimate two parameters in the rate expression: the mass transfer coefficient (Km) and the interfacial area (a). In Chapter 6 theoretical and correlative methods for estimating mass transfer coefficients were discussed for those cases in which transfer of some species was limited by a well-defined boundary layer, such as at a solid or liquid surface. Correlations were identified relating the Sherwood number to the Reynolds and Schmidt numbers, with the functionality specific to the geometry and type of flow (i.e., laminar or turbulent). Complications arise in applying these developments when estimating Km in liquid–liquid or gas–liquid mass contactors. We need estimates of bubble or drop size and some knowledge of the fluid motions in the vicinity of the bubbles or drops to calculate the Reynolds and Sherwood numbers. Furthermore, as shown in Section 6.5, resistances to mass transfer may occur in both phases, necessitating knowledge of the fluid motions inside the bubbles or drops. In this chapter we examine methods for estimating these quantities. This is an active research area requiring Level VI two-phase fluid motion modeling and experiment and is not understood nearly as well as its single-phase counterpart. For this reason, most handbooks and textbooks alike provide only empirical correlations of the product Kma specific to particular process equipment and do not address the problem of interfacial area determination independently from the prediction of mass transfer coefficients.

EURIPIDES AND ATHENS

Life and works

Euripides appears to us as one of the most vivid and recognizable poets of the fifth century bc. Compared to Aeschylus and Sophocles, more than twice as many of his plays have survived complete, while the greater quantity both of quotations in ancient authors and of sizeable papyrus fragments of the lost plays (reflecting his popularity throughout antiquity) gives us a more detailed picture of his dramatic oeuvre. In addition, we possess a variety of sources purporting to chronicle the life of the poet, who even appears as a character in three of the surviving comedies of Aristophanes (Acharnians, Women at the Thesmophoria, Frogs). Yet the very abundance of ancient ‘evidence’ for Eur.'s life and character has had a paradoxically confusing impact on the interpretation of his works (on which more below). For with the exception of a few details securely based on the Athenian didascalic records, all the surviving evidence is of highly dubious reliability, and the bulk of it is little more than anecdote based on naïve ‘inference’, whether from the plays themselves or from the absurd caricatures of Eur.'s art and life generated by Aristophanes and other comic poets.

In fact we have very little reliable evidence for Eur.'s dramatic career and know almost nothing about his life. He was evidently dead by the time of the first production of Aristophanes' Frogs at the Lenaea (in early January) of 405, and the Marmor Parium (a marble stele from Paros inscribed c. 264/3 with various dates from Greek history) puts his death in 407/6 and his birth in 485/4, dates which are as reasonable as any preserved in the sources.

Heat exchanger analysis follows the same procedures as chemical reactor analysis with the added complication that we need to deal with two control volumes separated by a barrier of area a. As shown in Table 3.1 we need to consider both tank type and tubular systems and allow for mixed–mixed, mixed–plug, or plug–plug fluid motions.

A heat exchanger is any device in which energy in the form of heat is transferred. The types of heat exchangers in which we will be most interested are devices in which heat is transferred from a fluid at one temperature to another at a different temperature. This is most commonly done by the confinement of both fluids in some geometry in which they are separated by a conductive material. In such devices the area available for heat transfer is set by the device type and size, and is often the object of a design calculation. If the two fluids are immiscible it is possible to exchange heat by direct contact of one fluid with the other, but such direct contact heat exchange is somewhat unusual. It is, however, the configuration most commonly employed to transfer mass between two fluids, and as such, will be treated in detail in Chapter 4. Note that the area for heat (and mass) transfer is much more difficult to measure or calculate in direct fluid–fluid contacting.

A simple heat exchanger, easily constructed, is one in which the fluids are pumped through two pipes, one inside the other.

INTRODUCTION

Although the importance of accuracy in describing primary data cannot be overemphasized, this is only one of the steps in gathering data that are needed to interpret an assemblage. The ultimate goal is to relate animal remains to the other materials from the specific site and to other sites so that larger cultural and biological inferences can be made (Schmid 1972:7; Smith 1976). To make these larger inferences, it is often necessary to derive secondary data by estimating relative proportions or specific indices from the primary data. Secondary data, by their nature, are less descriptive and more subjective than primary data. Secondary data, often derived from primary data mathematically, summarize many primary observations and require explanation and interpretation. Disagreements about all aspects of secondary data are numerous.

The secondary data reviewed in this chapter are: estimates of body dimensions, construction of age classes and sex ratios, relative frequencies of taxa, skeletal frequencies, estimates of dietary contributions; modifications, and niche breadth. These are clearly interrelated and can be interpreted in terms of many different research questions either together or alone. Methods for deriving secondary data often are developed to pursue a specific research problem and may not be widely applied. Regional zooarchaeological traditions and the frequency with which specific methods appear in the literature are strongly correlated. The methods for deriving secondary data surveyed in this chapter are widely used and have broad applications.

When we were asked to prepare a second edition to Zooarchaeology, we anticipated that this would be relatively easy. We proposed to update the literature and work on sections that we or our colleagues found did not “work” in practice. We quickly realized, however, the truth of the statement that zooarchaeology is a dynamic field. We were surprised to find a few major changes in the traditional approaches in the field over the past 10 years and significant advances in archaeogenetic, isotopic, and incremental growth applications. A shift in research emphasis also has occurred. Whereas in 1999 many zooarchaeologists focused on biological and anthropological interpretations pertaining to economies and the history of animal domestication, today publications on environmental change, environmental reconstruction, and applied zooarchaeology constitute a large percentage of the literature. Advances in geochemical applications make it possible to develop holistic perspectives on the human–environment relationship, dissolving problematic distinctions among anthropology, archaeology, ecology, geology, human biology, and zoology. At the same time, after many years of functional interpretations, structural explanations have assumed a larger place in the literature. One of the most gratifying discoveries is the increase in important zooarchaeological studies published in peer-reviewed, international journals by scholars from beyond Europe and North America. This more broadly inclusive community of scholars is a good sign that zooarchaeology continues to be strongly international.

Thus, in preparing this second edition, we made major changes in sections in which the greatest advances have been made in the past decade.

INTRODUCTION

Zooarchaeology refers to the study of animal remains excavated from archaeological sites. The goal of zooarchaeology is to understand the relationship between humans and their environment(s), especially between humans and other animal populations. Zooarchaeology is characterized by its broad, interdisciplinary character, which makes it difficult to write a review that adequately covers all aspects of the field. This diversity can be traced to the application of many physical, biological, ecological, and anthropological concepts and methods to the study of animal remains throughout the world by scholars with a wide range of theoretical interests and training.

ZOOARCHAEOLOGY, AN INTERDISCIPLINARY FIELD

Although animal remains, especially fossils, have intrigued the human mind for centuries, the first critical examinations of these remains were not conducted until the 1700s. Since then, zooarchaeologists have relied on combinations of the natural and social sciences, history, and the humanities for concepts, methods, and explanations. By tradition, many studies focus on zoogeographical relationships, environmental evolution, and the impact of humans on the landscape from the perspective of animals. Many zooarchaeologists pursue anthropological interests in nutrition, resource use, economies, residential patterns, ritual, social identity, and other aspects of human life involving animals or parts of animals. All of these topics are encompassed within modern zooarchaeology.

Biological principles and topics are fundamental to zooarchaeology. Biological research includes exploration of extinctions and changes in zoogeographical distributions, morphological characteristics, population structure, the history of domestication, paleoenvironmental conditions, and ecological relationships of extant fauna using subfossil materials to provide historical perspective.

INTRODUCTION

Many aspects of zooarchaeology are associated with establishing a reference collection and with professional responsibilities regarding animal remains and data. Although the following comments are placed in an appendix, this does not mean they are minor aspects of zooarchaeology. Errors in handling animal remains create many of the second-order changes discussed in Chapter 5. These are avoidable biases, and steps should be taken to limit their occurrence. Many of the procedures associated with primary (Chapter 6) and secondary (Chapter 7) data are controversial and subsequent publications may not provide the details necessary for reanalysis. To clarify biases or resolve differences in interpretation, it may be necessary to review the original notes as well as both the studied and the unstudied portions of archaeofaunal assemblages.

An important development in archaeology is the growing awareness of the fragility of archaeological sites. No one should undertake excavation without a commitment to studying and curating all of the materials encountered. Excavation is destructive regardless of whether it is motivated by personal pleasure, economic profit, or a better understanding of the past. Although many of the following considerations are based largely on professional and ethical treatment of our natural and cultural heritage, increasingly they are governed by legal requirements as well. Most countries have laws governing the excavation of antiquities as well as their removal from the country of origin and importation into a second country. Within a country, many levels of administrative responsibility may exist.

INTRODUCTION

Developments in zooarchaeology over the past 50 years have transformed our knowledge of the associations between animals and people, and between them and other aspects of the environment. The field has grown from one in which a few biologists provided occasional identification services to one with full-time zooarchaeologists participating as regular members of interdisciplinary archaeological projects. Just as the number of professional zooarchaeologists has increased, so too has the number of laboratories with good reference collections. Progress is being made on all levels, from improved comprehension of site-formation processes to increased sophistication in research questions. We have a much better understanding of the diverse ways in which humans respond to the challenges and opportunities of their environments; the variety of roles that animals fill; the breadth of the animals' social meaning; the importance of cuisines in sustaining our biological and social lives; and the magnitude of our species' impact on the environment.

RELATIONSHIPS AMONG DATA AND INTERPRETATIONS

From the perspective of major anthropological and biological research questions, each of the seven types of primary data can be used to derive many interrelated types of secondary data (Table 11.1). For example, animal use is an important aspect of an economy, and animals fill other social roles. To study this, it is necessary to know which animals were used; how and where they were obtained; how individual animals or their products were distributed; how each animal contributed to the diet; whether skins and wool provided protection and warmth; how sinew, bone, teeth, and shell were fashioned into tools and ornaments; if animals provided traction, transport, or dung; and what was used and what was not used.

INTRODUCTION

Ecology is “the study of the natural environment, particularly the interrelationships between organisms and their surroundings” (Ricklefs 1973:11). Ecologists investigate where animals live, what they eat, when and where they find their food, when they breed, what groups they form, and what biotic and abiotic conditions are favorable for their successful existence. Hunters and fishermen have a wealth of such information obtained empirically and passed down to them from the accumulated knowledge of generations who applied this to procure the resources required for survival. The targeted species vary through time with changing technologies and consumption patterns. They also differ from place to place according to available fauna and regional cuisines. Reconstruction and analysis of past behavior relies on present-day knowledge of the ecology of the animals represented in archaeological contexts. Life history information about these animals may suggest where and when they were caught, and which capture methods were most successful.

Caution must be used in framing hypotheses about how hunting, trapping, collecting, and fishing was conducted. In the first place, archaeological concepts of time and space are different from ecological concepts (Grayson and Delpech 1998; Lyman 2003). Capture success must be measured in the context of the technology employed at a particular time and place. Given sufficient patience some fishes can be caught by hand, although we might think a net or spear would be required. Similarly, one would expect that capturing a large predator, such as a puma, would require a substantial weapon.