So far, we’ve considered four data structures: arrays, lists, stacks, and queues. All four could be described as linear, in that they maintain their items as ordered sequences: arrays and lists are indexed by position, stacks are LIFO, and queues are FIFO. In this chapter, we’ll consider the new problem of building a lookup structure, like a table, that can take an input called the key and return its associated value. For example, we might fetch a record of information about a museum artifact given its ID number as the key. None of our previous data structures are a good fit for this problem.

The applied psychology of religion takes information from the knowledge base developed by psychologists of religion and uses this information for some social, psychological, or spiritual/religious purpose. When we seek to apply research and theory in this field we must first answer questions about our objectives, and it is unlikely that we will arrive at much agreement on ultimate goals. Still, it is possible that some consensual objectives and applications can emerge among researchers and those who seek to apply what researchers have learned. This chapter lists and discusses a broad range of potential applications. One major domain of application concerns clinical psychology, counseling psychology, psychiatry, social work, and related fields. We see that in recent decades, there have been many proposals – partly driven by the findings of empirical research – to integrate religious and spiritual approaches into mainstream psychotherapy. As with nearly everything else in the psychology of religion, these proposals can be controversial. In addition, the chapter discusses proposed spiritual and religious competencies for psychologists.

Survey data, despite limitations, offer the clearest window on the current state of global religiosity, showing the sharply divergent ways religious impulses and their absence have manifested in different nations and regions. After a discussion of religious literacy, we explore what cross-cultural survey research teaches about the global distribution of religious belief. Research suggests that atheism is rare, especially outside of Europe and a few industrialized countries. Beyond this, studies confirm that countries differ greatly in the prevalence of various religious beliefs, including belief in a personal God who intervenes in human affairs. Some careful projections also suggest that significant changes are coming over the next few decades in the relative sizes of different religious groups around the world. In the United States, survey data suggest that – despite some recent changes -- people continue to be relatively religious when compared with other highly industrialized and economically developed nations. The second half of the chapter looks at the empirical relationships between religiosity and education, intellect, thinking styles, gender, age, and personality.

This chapter describes the events that led to the birth of clinical psychology as a science and a profession. It outlines three traditions that shaped the field and continue to influence it: (a) the use of scientific research methods – the empirical tradition; (b) the measurement of individual differences – the psychometric tradition; and (c) the classification and treatment of psychological disorders – the clinical tradition. It shows how the field grew slowly but steadily during the first half of the twentieth century, then saw explosive growth both in size and in the diversity of its major theoretical approaches, including the psychodynamic, humanistic, behavioral, cognitive, cognitive behavioral, social systems, and biological. It also tells the story of how these approaches developed and presents examples of how various approaches might be applied in clinical cases. The chapter concludes with a summary of the latest developments in clinical psychology that will surely shape its future.

In practice, channels often cause linear dispersive signal distortions (e.g., due to low-pass properties of cables or multipath propagation in wireless communications). Consequently, in this chapter we study PAM transmission over time-invariant linear dispersive channels, where so-called intersymbol interference (ISI) occurs. First, receiver-side equalization strategies for linear dispersive channels are introduced and analyzed. Besides the optimum procedure, which follows immediately from the general signal space concept, we assess low-complexity receivers, specifically linear equalization and decision-feedback equalization. In each case, we are interested in the achievable error performance; the loss caused by ISI is quantified. In addition, transmitter-side techniques for pre-equalization are addressed. The duality between receiver-side and transmitter-side schemes is highlighted. A unified theoretic framework for filter design and the calculation of the error performance of the various strategies for digital transmission over linear dispersive channels is presented.

This chapter describes how clinical psychologists work with medical professionals to treat disorders, help patients to cope with the stress of medical conditions, and to adhere to medical treatment recommendations. It also describes factors that contribute to disease, focusing on relationships between psychosocial factors (such as stress and unhelpful patterns of thinking) and physical factors (such as nervous system activity, circulation, and immune system functioning). The chapter also includes a description of behavioral and psychological risk factors that enhance the likelihood of illnesses such as cardiovascular disease, chronic pain, and cancer. Also discussed are programs for preventing or minimizing the impact of those risk factors.

This chapter describes professional issues within clinical psychology. It includes summaries of several national conferences on training, the development of the doctor of psychology (PsyD) degree, and the establishment of the clinical scientist model, the scientist-practitioner model, and the practitioner-scholar model of clinical training. It also outlines the contours of professional regulation including via certification and licensure by state clinical psychology boards, and the American Board of Professional Psychology. It also discusses the ethical standards of the American Psychological Association, and regulation of clinical psychologists’ behavior by the APA ethics committee and state licensing boards. The chapter tells the story of how clinical psychologists gained the right to practice psychotherapy independently and to receive insurance coverage for mental health services, summarizes the impact of changes in the economics of mental health service delivery, and provides the latest information on the controversy over clinicians’ right to prescribe medication. There is also a review of efforts being made to enhance clinicians’ multicultural competence and, based on historical and current forces in the field, a set of predictions about where clinical psychology is heading in the future.

Logic Theorist was the first artificially intelligent program, created in 1955 by Allen Newell and Herbert Simon, and actually predating the term “artificial intelligence,” which was introduced the next year. Logic Theorist could apply the rules of symbolic logic to prove mathematical theorems – the first time a computer accomplished a task considered solely within the domain of human intelligence. Given a starting statement, it applied logical laws to generate a set of new statements, then recursively continued the process. Eventually, this procedure would discover a chain of logical transformations that connected the starting statement to the desired final statement. Applied naively, this process would generate an intractable number of possible paths, but Logic Theorist had the ability to detect and discard infeasible paths that couldn’t lead to a solution.

Although people may – as some psychologists argue -- be born with a tendency to become believers, specific religious traditions are cultural products that must be acquired through learning and socialization. In addition, religious beliefs and behaviors take on different meanings at different ages. This chapter starts with a discussion of religious socialization and the developmental psychology of religion. The chapter includes a detailed section on religious socialization in summer camps. Next, we examine the large body of research on the psychology of prayer. Psychologists of religion argue that even if prayer involves some matters beyond the reach of science, important aspects of the prayer experience can be addressed using good scientific practice. T. M. Luhrmann’s important work is considered in some detail; she argues that, ultimately, through prayer, religious believers start to experience part of their own minds as the presence of God. The chapter concludes with two comprehensive sections on: (1) religious and mystical experiences and (2) identity and religion. For some people, religious identity is closely tied to ethnic, racial, national, professional, and familial identities; indeed, religious identity may be derived from these other identities.

Very often, software developers need to evaluate the trade-offs between different approaches to solving a problem. Do you want the fastest solution, even if it’s difficult to implement and maintain? Will your code still be useful if you have to process 100 times as much data? What if an algorithm is fast for some inputs but terrible for others? Algorithm analysis is the framework that computer scientists use to understand the trade-offs between algorithms. Algorithm analysis is primarily theoretical: It focuses on the fundamental properties of algorithms, and not on systems, languages, or any particular details of their implementations.

This chapter introduces the key concepts of algorithm analysis, starting from the practical example of searching an array for a value of interest. We’ll start by making experimental comparisons between two searching methods: a simple linear search and the more complex binary search. The second part of the chapter introduces one of the most important mathematical tools in computer science, Big-O notation, the primary tool for algorithm analysis.

NWP is an initial/boundary value problem: given an estimate of the present state of the atmosphere (initial conditions) and appropriate boundary conditions, the model simulates (forecasts) the atmospheric evolution. More accurate estimates of initial conditions lead to better forecasts. Currently, operational NWP centers produce initial conditions through a statistical combination of observations and short-range forecasts that account for the uncertainty associated with each source of information. This approach has become known as “data assimilation.” In this chapter, we review early attempts at data assimilation and then introduce the statistical estimation methods that provide a solid foundation for data assimilation. Examples using toy models are provided to illustrate the principles of data assimilation. We then discuss in detail all state-of-the-art data assimilation methods adopted in operational centers, including optimal interpolation, 3D-Var, 4D-Var, ensemble Kalman filter, and hybrid methods. Specifically, we discuss several improvements for the ensemble Kalman filter that make it competitive with 4D-Var. We also discuss Ensemble Forecast Sensitivity to Observations (EFSO), a powerful tool that can estimate the impact of any observations on short-range forecasts, and then we discuss the proactive quality control (PQC) built upon EFSO. We also briefly introduce the non-Gaussian assimilation method particle filters.

In recent decades, scientific efforts to probe religious behavior and mental states have increased markedly in quantity and sophistication, yet the fascinating story of the psychology of religion remains unfamiliar not only to the general public, but also to many social scientists. This chapter starts with case studies of how religion has functioned in several prominent human lives. We consider why the psychology of religion matters and delve deeply into the many problems associated with defining religion, spirituality and the psychology of religion. The psychology of religion probes religious beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, emotions, experiences, and relationships, paying particular attention to the consequences of religion for health, well-being, morality and social relations. Scholars debate: (1) the importance of the field’s history and grand theories, (2) the acceptability of the historical emphasis on Western Christianity, (3) the generalizability of much empirical work, (4) the meaning of spirituality outside of religion, and (5) whether the discipline is biased in favor of or against religion.