From a thermodynamic perspective, thermal energy can be transferred across a boundary (i.e., heat transfer can occur) by only two mechanisms: conduction and radiation. Conduction is the process in which energy exchange occurs due to the interactions of molecular (or smaller) scale energy carriers within a material. The conduction process is intuitive; it is easy to imagine energy carriers having a higher level of energy (represented by their temperature) colliding with neighboring particles and thereby transferring some of their energy to them. Radiation is a very different heat transfer process because energy is transferred without the involvement of any molecular interactions. Radiation energy exchange is related to electromagnetic waves and therefore can occur over long distances through a complete vacuum. For example, the energy that our planet receives from the Sun is a result of radiation exchange. This chapter presents an introduction to radiation heat transfer with a focus on providing methods for solving radiation problems.

Chapter 5 discussed transient problems in which the spatial temperature gradients within a solid object can be neglected and therefore the problem is approximately zero-dimensional (0-D). In these lumped capacitance transient problems the solution is a function only of time. Lumped capacitance problems essentially ignore the process of conduction as being unimportant. This chapter discusses transient problems where internal, spatial temperature gradients related to energy transfer by conduction are nonnegligible (i.e., the Biot number is not much less than unity). The first section provides some conceptual tools that are not exact, but can be used to develop an understanding of transient conduction problems. More sophisticated analytical and numerical solutions that provide more exact solutions are presented in the remaining sections.

This chapter is not about an individual project in applied linguistics, but an entire approach to teaching spoken and written language that has been developed over many decades in the research tradition of systemic functional linguistics (SFL). The approach is known as genre-based literacy pedagogy. The term “genre” refers to the ways in which texts vary according to their social purposes. Stories engage and entertain readers; explanations explain sequences of cause and effect; procedures direct activities; arguments evaluate issues and points of view. Genre-based literacy pedagogy (or simply genre pedagogy) guides learners to recognize and use the text structures and language patterns of different genres in their reading and writing. This chapter starts with the SFL model of text-in-context. It then introduces analyses of two sets of genres in education. One set is the genres of educational curricula, such as stories, explanations, procedures, arguments. These are known as knowledge genres. The other is the genres of classroom teaching and learning. These are known as curriculum genres. Genre pedagogy is then exemplified with extracts from a science literacy lesson.

This chapter surveys the historical background of the global spread of English and its linguistic consequences. Since World Englishes are mostly products of colonialism, it surveys the history of European colonization and colonization types, the growth and decline of the British Empire, and the role of the United States in the globalization of English. It discusses the tension between the internationalization and the localization of English, the range of variety types which have consequently grown in specific circumstances; and offers numbers of varieties and speakers involved, including a global map of countries in which English has some sort of a special internal status. It is shown that, surprisingly, the global growth of English gained even more momentum after the end of the colonial period. The constant leitmotif in all of this is the relationship between the language-external and the internal, the direct functional relationship between historical events and constellations, the communicative patterns caused by these, and, consequently, their effects upon the development of linguistic forms and varieties.

When you hear the word “research,” what do you think of? In the media, we often see examples of laboratory research that uses statistical analyses of measurements collected through experiments using high-tech equipment. While some applied linguists work in similar kinds of labs and many use statistical analyses, applied linguists are often interested in questions that require different kinds of data and analysis. If you’re new to the field, it might be hard to imagine what kinds of data an applied linguist would collect. Throughout the chapters in Part B of this book, you’ll see examples of many different kinds of data, and these examples can be understood in part in terms of their focus on features of spoken or written language, communication more broadly, or the context in which language is used.

The chapter starts by describing the appearance and interpretation of a regression tree, followed by a more detailed explanation of the recursive partitioning algorithm used in the construction of tree models. We describe how optimum tree complexity is chosen based on the results of a crossvalidation procedure, and how a tree model can be simplified via its pruning. The concepts of competing and surrogate predictors are touched upon, both enabling a more effective application of the fitted tree models. The methods described in this chapter are accompanied by a carefully-explained guide to the R code needed for their use, in this case employing the rpart package.

There’s an app for that. Both language learners and language educators are familiar with many digital resources for learning and teaching languages, but how do they work? Many testing agencies, such as the Educational Testing Service (ETS, www.ets.org), use technology to evaluate and score language proficiency, but how does the computer know what “good” language is? These, and other, questions are best understood by exploring the research and development of automated language assessment (ALA). ALA is concerned with the development of computational systems that can automate the assessment of language samples. These language samples may include spoken or written excerpts that are produced by first or second language speakers or writers. ALA allows us to objectively and efficiently evaluate large numbers of language samples, and to provide feedback to the language learners. Consider your current class – you may have anywhere from 10 to 100 classmates. Now, consider evaluating a 5-minute speech sample and providing helpful feedback for each individual. If you are in a class of 100, it would take over 8 hours just to listen to the samples. Testing agencies such as ETS evaluate thousands of written and spoken samples. ALA provides a way for effectively evaluating such large sample numbers and providing objective general feedback directly to the individual on specified features of language.

This chapter looks at the spread of English to countries of the Southern Hemisphere, notably Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. These “Southern Hemisphere Englishes” (including the islands of Tristan da Cunha and the Falklands in the South Atlantic) have been found to have a lot in common both historically and linguistically: similar settlement periods (the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries) and strategies (typically large-scale, organized settlement moves of lower- and middle-class people from the British Isles, mainly southern and south-eastern England). Their descendants today constitute large native-speaking communities of direct British ancestry. They faced similar situations – unfamiliar territory and climate and, most importantly, the need to deal and communicate with earlier residents of the areas they migrated to. In the long run, these peoples – Aboriginals in Australia; Maoris in New Zealand; Africans, Afrikaners, and later also Indians in South Africa – have adopted and transformed English, using it for their own purposes, and many of them have shifted to it, thus producing new ethnic varieties like Aboriginal English or Maori English. Cast studies and language samples focus on Australian English (including a discussion of pronunciation features in a "footie" sports program) and South African varieties of English.