INTRODUCTION

The two articles in this section focus on two aspects of a language lesson: planning the lesson and managing learner behavior during a lesson. Planning is often viewed as a key aspect of teaching a successful lesson. During the planning phase, the teacher makes decisions about goals, activities, resources, timing, grouping, and other aspects of the lesson. Harmer (1991) includes the following elements in a lesson plan:

1. a. Description of the class

2. b. Recent work

3. c. Objectives

4. d. Contents (context, activity and class organization, aids, language, possible problems)

5. e. Additional possibilities

Even though a lesson may have already been planned (by the textbook writer), a teacher will still need to make decisions that relate to the needs of his or her specific class, adapting the lesson from the book in different ways to make it better suit the class. This process of planning and adaptation is a crucial dimension of teaching because during this process the teacher makes many decisions that are essential for a successful lesson. Planning can be regarded as a process of transformation during which the teacher creates ideas for a lesson based on understanding of learners' needs, problems, and interests, and on the content of the lesson itself. This does not necessarily result in a detailed, written lesson plan. Many teachers teach successful lessons based on mental plans or on brief lesson notes.

INTRODUCTION

Few would question the need to make language classrooms a place where genuine and meaningful communication takes place and not simply one where students “practice” language for its own sake. This emphasis on making meaning the priority in syllabus design and methodology underlies many aspects of contemporary approaches to language teaching. For example:

• Communicative Language Teaching: The need to make communication the primary focus of teaching materials and classroom activities has long been a core assumption of communicative methodology.

• Task-based language teaching: The use of tasks that serve to facilitate meaningful communication and interaction lies at the heart of various proposals for “task-based instruction,” which is an attempt to apply principles from second language acquisition research to language teaching.

• Content-based instruction: A focus on real-world content and the understanding and communication of information through language is the key to second language learning and teaching in this approach.

The articles in this section focus on task work and project work as different ways of creating opportunities for language learning through problem solving, cooperative learning, collaboration, and negotiation of meaning – processes which many believe are central to second language acquisition.

Many traditional approaches to language teaching are based on a focus on grammatical form and a cycle of activities that involves presentation of a new language item, practice of the item under controlled conditions, and a production phase in which the learners try out the form in a more communicative context.

INTRODUCTION

The last section in this anthology deals with the central issue of teachers' professional development. Over the years we have come to realize that, to quote Hargreaves and Fullan (1992, p. ix), “the teacher is the ultimate key to educational change and school improvement.” Teachers do not simply implement the curriculum. They define and refine the curriculum; they interpret and transform the curriculum in a way that makes learning more manageable for the learners. In other words, it is what teachers think and do at the classroom level that eventually determines what learners learn in the classroom. Thus, given the key role of the teachers in the classroom, it is imperative that professional growth become a top priority. Teachers should constantly develop not only their knowledge of the subject matter, but also their knowledge of pedagogy. The three articles in this section look at the different aspects of professional development.

Ur sets the scene by defining the concept of professionalism in the context of the work of the English teacher. After discussing the notion of professionalism, she asks if we English teachers can be rightly called professionals. Do we belong to a community of professionals who interact and exchange ideas for the purpose of developing our professionalism? Are we a learning community which is interested in acquiring new knowledge and experimenting with new ideas? Are we committed to achieving certain desirable standards in our profession?

INTRODUCTION

Interests in learning strategies began with the publication of papers collectively known as the “good language learner” studies (see Cohen & Weaver, 1998). Since then, hundreds of studies have been generated that look at different aspects of learning strategies and their roles in language learning. In an effort to make sense of the huge database and numerous research findings in this area, Oxford (1990, in Cohen & Weaver, 1998) differentiates learning strategies into the following categories:

COGNITIVE

Cognitive strategies involve the identification, retention, and retrieval of language elements. For example, students may use memory-enhancing strategies (e.g., the keyword method) to help them remember new words.

METACOGNITIVE

Strategies of this type deal with the planning, monitoring, and evaluation of language learning activities. For example, students may develop a plan for monitoring their progress by constantly comparing their current level of proficiency with the course goals outlined in the curriculum.

AFFECTIVE

Affective strategies are those that serve to regulate emotions, attitudes, and motivation. For example, students may read linguistically simplified books to develop a positive attitude toward reading materials.

SOCIAL

These strategies refer to actions learners take to interact with users of the language. For example, students may deliberately seek out opportunities to use the target language with native speakers of the language.

INTRODUCTION

The papers in this section deal with an aspect of learning which could either be the focus of a lesson or form a component of any lesson – pronunciation. Pronunciation (also known as phonology) includes the role of individual sounds and sound segments, that is, features at the segmental level, as well as suprasegmental features such as stress, rhythm, and intonation. The fact that few second language learners are able to speak a second language without showing evidence of the transfer of pronunciation features of their native language is evidence of the difficulty of acquiring a nativelike pronunciation, but also of the goals learners set for themselves. Many learners are quite comfortable to show evidence of their native language on their second language phonology, since it is sometimes viewed as a core part of their cultural identity.

Approaches to the teaching of pronunciation have changed significantly throughout the recent history of language teaching, moving beyond an emphasis on the accurate production of individual speech sounds to concentrating more on the broader, communicative aspects of connected speech. Many teachers, however, are unsure as to the status of pronunciation and whether or how it should receive systematic attention in a language course. Commonly asked questions are: Is pronunciation something that is worth teaching? How effective are any of the various approaches to teaching pronunciation found in course books and teaching materials? Is a direct or an indirect approach more effective?

INTRODUCTION

Most teachers would hope for a small class size in which students are more or less homogeneous in terms of proficiency. Except for a lucky few, however, most teachers find themselves working with a class of fifty students or more, and, to make matters worse, these students often exhibit a wide variety of abilities. This less than ideal situation often leads to the use of teaching methodology which does not promote optimal learning. For example, teacher-centered methodology, which largely ignores individual differences and the contribution of the learners in the learning process is, unfortunately, still ubiquitous in many ESL classrooms. Walk into a typical ESL classroom and you will observe a familiar situation where interaction in the classroom is dominated by the teacher, with the students mainly responding to the teacher's initiatives. Another familiar characteristic is one in which every student in class is doing more or less “the same thing, at the same time, and in the same way” (Ur, 1996, p. 233). The two papers in this section explore ways of making students become more active contributors in the learning process and examine principles for the design of learning activities and materials which allow for some degree of individualization in the classroom.

The first paper, by Jacobs and Hall, looks at the techniques and principles for implementing cooperative learning. When carefully planned and executed, cooperative learning can lead to a more dynamic classroom interaction that promotes more learning.

INTRODUCTION

A large percentage of the world's language learners study English in order to develop proficiency in speaking. The ability to speak a second or foreign language well is a very complex task if we try to understand the nature of what appears to be involved. To begin with, speaking is used for many different purposes, and each purpose involves different skills. When we use casual conversation, for example, our purposes may be to make social contact with people, to establish rapport, or to engage in the harmless chitchat that occupies much of the time we spend with friends. When we engage in discussion with someone, on the other hand, the purpose may be to seek or express opinions, to persuade someone about something, or to clarify information. In some situations, we use speaking to give instructions or to get things done. We may use speaking to describe things, to complain about people's behavior, to make polite requests, or to entertain people with jokes and anecdotes. Each of these different purposes for speaking implies knowledge of the rules that account for how spoken language reflects the context or situation in which speech occurs, the participants involved and their specific roles and relationships, and the kind of activity the speakers are involved in. In the last 20 or so years, linguists have provided a great deal of information on how speakers use language appropriately in different situations and clarified the complex nature of what is involved in developing spoken fluency in a second or foreign language.

INTRODUCTION

The processes of curriculum development and syllabus design in language teaching usually involve assessing the needs of learners in a language program, developing goals and objectives, planning a syllabus, selecting teaching approaches and materials, and deciding on assessment procedures and criteria. The papers in this section focus on issues relating to syllabus design and materials development. Since a syllabus reflects a view of language and of language learning, it is not surprising that the nature of language syllabuses has received a great deal of attention in the recent history of language teaching. As communicative approaches to teaching became dominant in the 1980s, attempts have been made to replace grammatical syllabuses with ones that reflect a communicative understanding of language. The move away from grammatically based syllabuses in the 1960s led to a variety of syllabus proposals, including notional-functional, situational, lexical, task-based, and procedural, all of which claim to be examples of a communicative syllabus. Finney examines three major curriculum design models and their origins in underlying educational traditions. She then proposes an integrated, mixed-focus model for curriculum design, within which there is the flexibility to respond to the changing needs of learners and recognition of learners as active participants in the language learning process. The teacher, in this model, is responsible not only for teaching language for communication and language as knowledge, but also for encouraging learners to take responsibility for their own learning so that they develop skills and strategies for continuing to learn outside of the classroom.

INTRODUCTION

Applied linguists have in recent years begun to move away from a preoccupation with the best methods of language teaching to a view that seeks to better understand the nature of language learning and teaching. Rather than introducing new methods of teaching, they are now more concerned with describing language pedagogy that is based on a principled understanding of second language learning. Brown (Chapter 1 of this volume) and Kumaravadivelu (1994), for example, have proposed a set of teaching/learning principles to which any good language pedagogy should conform. Examples of these principles include providing a rich linguistic environment, respecting and capitalizing on learners' contribution to the learning process, and emphasizing fluency over, but not at the expense of, accuracy (see Richards, Chapter 14 of this volume).

Extensive reading (ER), with its emphasis on encouraging learners to read self-selected, large amounts of meaningful language, fits well with current principles for good second and foreign language pedagogy (Grabe, Chapter 26 of this volume; Day & Bamford, 1998). In this paper, we briefly describe what ER is, how it is different from intensive reading, what its learning benefits can be for students, and what theories underpin ER. The paper also discusses some of the reasons why many teachers are still not implementing ER.

INTRODUCTION

In many second or foreign language teaching situations, reading receives a special focus. There are a number of reasons for this. First, many foreign language students often have reading as one of their most important goals. They want to be able to read for information and pleasure, for their career, and for study purposes. In fact, in most ESL situations, the ability to read in a foreign language is all that students ever want to acquire. Second, written texts serve various pedagogical purposes. Extensive exposure to linguistically comprehensible written texts can enhance the process of language acquisition. Good reading texts also provide good models for writing, and provide opportunities to introduce new topics, to stimulate discussion, and to study language (e.g., vocabulary, grammar, and idioms). Reading, then, is a skill which is highly valued by students and teachers alike. But, what is reading instruction like in the classroom? How do we teach reading? Do teachers teach according to principles derived from research findings? The three articles in this section, to varying degrees, seek to throw light on the principles and practice of teaching reading.

In the first paper, Grabe critically examines the relationship between research and practice in both L1 and L2 reading. He points out that the relationship between research and instruction in the L1 reading contexts is quite straightforward. L1 reading instruction has to a large extent been influenced by research findings.

INTRODUCTION

The two papers in this section reexamine the notion of methods of teaching and offer complementary perspectives on how the nature of teaching can be understood. Although for much of the twentieth century a primary concern of the language teaching profession was to find more effective methods of language teaching, by the twenty-first century there has been a movement away from a preoccupation with generic teaching methods toward a more complex view of language teaching which encompasses a multifaceted understanding of the teaching and learning processes. Brown traces this movement from a preoccupation with “methods” to a focus on “pedagogy.”

The notion of teaching methods has had a long history in language teaching, as is witnessed by the rise and fall of a variety of methods throughout the recent history of language teaching. Some, such as Audiolingualism, became the orthodox teaching methods of the 1970s in many parts of the world. Other guru-led methods such as the Silent Way attracted small but devoted followers in the 1980s and beyond, but attract little attention today. Many teachers have found the notion of methods attractive over the last one hundred or so years, since they offer apparently foolproof systems for classroom instruction and are hence sometimes embraced enthusiastically as a panacea for the “language teaching problem.” The 1970s and 1980s were perhaps the years of greatest enthusiasm for methods.

INTRODUCTION

There is no doubt that writing is the most difficult skill for L2 learners to master. The difficulty lies not only in generating and organizing ideas, but also in translating these ideas into readable text. The skills involved in writing are highly complex. L2 writers have to pay attention to higher level skills of planning and organizing as well as lower level skills of spelling, punctuation, word choice, and so on. The difficulty becomes even more pronounced if their language proficiency is weak.

With so many conflicting theories around and so many implementation factors to consider, planning and teaching a course in writing can be a daunting task. Which theoretical strands are we going to adopt? Are we going to use the process approach or the genre-based approach? Or an eclectic approach? What will be the focus of our course? What activities are likely to help students develop their writing skills? How do we treat learner errors? Do we correct all error types? How do we get students to self-edit? These are some of the issues that the four articles in this section seek to address.

Drawing on her extensive experience in research and teaching writing, Raimes outlines a set of guidelines which can make the planning of a writing course a less intimidating task. These guidelines are based on what we have long known to be the key principles of course design, which include considerations of course goals, theories, content, focus, syllabus, materials, methodology, activities, and course evaluation.

INTRODUCTION

The three articles in this section deal with the use of technologies in the classroom. In recent years, the use of technological aids, especially those related to computers, has increasingly become a common feature of the classroom. There is no doubt that computer-based instruction will occupy a more central role in the second language classroom in the future. However, as we eagerly explore the potential that this new technology has to offer to language learning, we should not lose sight of the fact that it is the teacher, not the technology, who determines the quality of the learning that takes place in the classroom.

In adopting a new technology, be it a tape recorder, a VCR, a CD-ROM multimedia, or other network-based communication technology, Jones and Sato (1998) suggest that we consider the following questions:

• Does the new technology facilitate the attainment of course goals?

• Is it cost-effective? Do the benefits outweigh its cost?

• Are the teachers ready to work with the new technology? Is any training required?

• Does it serve the needs of the teachers and students?

• Does it help teachers make more efficient use of class time?

There are other questions to think about, but these are some of the most important questions that need to be addressed before we decide to implement new technologies in the classroom.

Stempleski discusses the positive features of video materials and presents guidelines which can help teachers plan their video lessons effectively.

INTRODUCTION

The role of grammar is perhaps one of the most controversial issues in language teaching. In the early parts of the twentieth century, grammar teaching formed an essential part of language instruction, so much so that other aspects of language learning were either ignored or downplayed. The argument was that if you knew the grammatical rules of the language, you would be able to use it for communication. This concept was strongly challenged in the early 1970s. Knowledge of the grammatical system of the language, it was argued, was but one of the many components which underlay the notion of communicative competence. To be considered a competent user of a language, one needs to know not only the rules of grammar, but also how the rules are used in real communication. During this period, grammar teaching became less prominent, and in some cases, was abandoned.

In recent years, grammar teaching has regained its rightful place in the language curriculum. People now agree that grammar is too important to be ignored, and that without a good knowledge of grammar, learners' language development will be severely constrained. There is now a general consensus that the issue is not whether or not we should teach grammar. The issue now centers on questions such as, Which grammar items do learners need most? How do we go about teaching grammar items in the most effective way? Are they best taught inductively or deductively?

INTRODUCTION

In the past, vocabulary teaching and learning were often given little priority in second language programs, but recently there has been a renewed interest in the nature of vocabulary and its role in learning and teaching. Traditionally, vocabulary learning was often left to look after itself and received only incidental attention in many textbooks and language programs. Thus, although the course curriculum was often quite specific about aspects of teaching such as grammar, reading, or speaking, little specification was given to the role of vocabulary. The status of vocabulary now seems to be changing. For one thing, the notion of a word has been “broadened” to include lexical phrases and routines, and it has been suggested that in the initial stages of learning these play a primary role in communication and acquisition. In addition, access to lexical corpora has made it possible for applied linguists to access huge samples of language in order to find out how words are used, both by native speakers and by second language learners. Such research has enabled applied linguists to identify common patterns of collocation, word formation, metaphor, and lexical phrases that are part of a speaker's lexical competence. The papers in this section discuss the role of vocabulary in teaching and learning.