This chapter explores late antique portraiture, centring on its stylistic evolution, its cultural significance and shifting scholarly interpretations. It examines a diverse range of materials, including sculptural portraits, reliefs, mosaics and coins, alongside historical texts that shed light on how portraiture was perceived and utilised during this period. The chapter traces the transition from the naturalistic imperial portraiture of the Roman era to the more stylised and symbolic depictions of the Late Antique and Byzantine periods. It analyses how portraiture evolved from realistic likenesses to abstract, hierarchical representations, particularly as a response to Christianity’s growing influence and the changing political landscape, and argues that late antique portraits should be viewed not as signs of artistic decline but rather as part of a broader transformation in both artistic and ideological expression. The chapter concludes that portraiture in Late Antiquity was not merely about depicting individuals; it played essential political, religious and social roles, reinforcing imperial authority and Christian ideals.

This chapter surveys the body of ancient Gnostic apocalypses, works that differentiate God from the creator of the world and identify humanity as divine. These apocalypses are important for our understanding of Greek, Jewish, Coptic, and Manichaean literature, as well as early Islam, but a brief look at two such apocalypses—the Apocryphon of John and the Apocalypse of Paul—reminds us that their use of visionary motifs and pseudepigraphy also served diverse ends in the world of early Christianity.