Hostname: page-component-6766d58669-rxg44 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-05-21T08:19:36.785Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Between Instinct and Intelligence: Harnessing Police Dog Agency in Early Twentieth-Century Paris

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 March 2016

Chris Pearson
Chris Pearson*
Affiliation:
University of Liverpool, UK
*
Chris.Pearson@liverpool.ac.uk
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article analyzes the introduction of police dogs in early twentieth-century Paris, which formed part of the transnational extension of police powers and their specialization. Within a context of widespread fears of crime and new and contested understandings of animal psychology, police officers, journalists, and canophiles promoted the dogs as inexpensive yet effective agents who could help the police contain the threat posed by criminals. This article responds to a growing number of studies on nonhuman agency by examining how humans in a particular place and time conceptualized and harnessed animal abilities. I argue that while nonhuman agency is an illuminating and important analytical tool, there is a danger that it might become monolithic and static. With these concerns in mind, I show how examining historical actors' conceptualizations of animal abilities takes us closer to the historical stakes and complexities of mobilizing purposeful and capable animals, and provides a better understanding of the constraints within which animals act. Attitudes toward police dogs were entwined with broader discussions of human and animal intelligence. Concerns that dogs' abilities and intelligence were contingent and potentially reversible qualities resembled contemporary biomedical fears that base instincts, desires, and impulses could overwhelm human intelligence and morality, resulting in individual and collective degeneration. To many, it seemed that police dogs' intelligence had not tamed their aggressive instincts, and these worries partly explain the demise of the first wave of police dogs in Paris after World War I.

Information

Type
Research Article
Information
Comparative Studies in Society and History , Volume 58 , Issue 2 , April 2016 , pp. 463 - 490
Copyright
Copyright © Society for the Comparative Study of Society and History 2016 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

1 Clément Vautel, “La vie fantaisiste: chien policier,” Le Journal, 20 Apr. 1907.

2 Dominique Kalifa, Crime et culture au XIXe siècle (Paris: Perrin, 2005), 257;Shaya, Gregory, “The flâneur, the badaud, and the Making of a Mass Public in France, circa 1869–1910,” American Historical Review 109, 1 (2004): 41–77CrossRefGoogle Scholar. By 1914, Le Petit Parisien, Le Petit Journal, Le Matin, and Le Journal had a combined circulation of 4.5 million; Robert Gildea, Children of the Revolution: The French, 1799–1914 (London: Penguin, 2008), 404.

3 René Simon, Le chien de police, de défense, de secours (Paris: A. Pedone, 1909), 32.

4 Kalifa, Crime et culture, 47, 66. Robert A. Nye, Crime, Madness and Politics in Modern France: The Medical Concept of National Decline (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), 196.

5 His-Huey Liang, The Rise of the Modern Police and the European State System from Metternich to the Second World War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002 [1992]), 4; Kalifa, Crime et culture, 13. Lépine was prefect from 11 July 1893 to 14 October 1897, and 23 June 1899 to 29 March 1913. On Lépine, see Jean Marc Berlière, Le préfet Lépine: vers la naissance de la police moderne (Paris: Denoël, 1993).

6 “Les chiens auxiliaires de la défense fiscale,” Annales des douanes, 12, 14 (15 July 1914)Google Scholar; Jean-Daniel Lauth, Etude sur la liaison par chien de guerre (Paris: R. Chapelot et Cie, 1910).

7 On dogs and history, see Aaron Herald Skabelund, Empire of Dogs: Canines, Japan, and the Making of the Modern Imperial World (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2011); Philip Howell, At Home and Astray: The Domestic Dog in Victorian Britain (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2015); Neil Pemberton and Michael Worboys, Mad Dogs and Englishmen: Rabies in Britain, 1830–2000 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007); Catherine Pinguet, Les chiens d'Istanbul: des rapports entre l'homme et l'animal de l'antiquité à nos jours (Saint-Pourçain-sur-Sioule: Bleu Autour, 2008); Sandra Swart and Lance van Sittert, eds., Canis africanis: A Dog History of Southern Africa (Leiden: Brill, 2008).

8 Mason, Emma, “Dogs, Detectives and the Famous Sherlock Holmes,” International Journal of Cultural Studies 11, 3 (2008): 289–300CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Pemberton, Neil, “Bloodhounds as Detectives: Dogs, Slum Stench and Late-Victorian Murder Investigation,” Cultural and Social History 10, 1 (2013): 69–91CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Spratt, Meg, “When Police Dogs Attacked: Iconic News Photographs and Construction of History, Mythology and Political Discourse,” American Journalism 25, 2 (2008): 85–105Google Scholar; Keith Shear, “Police Dogs and State Rationality in Early Twentieth-Century South Africa,” in Swart and van Sittert, eds., Canis africanis, 193–216.

9 Sarah E. McFarland and Ryan Hediger, eds., Animals and Agency: An Interdisciplinary Exploration (Leiden: Brill, 2009). On the history of French policing, see Jean Marc Berlière and René Lévy, Histoire de polices en France: de l'ancien régime à nos jours (Paris: Nouveau Monde, 2013); Christian Chevandier, Policiers dans la ville (Paris: Gallimard, 2012). On the history of animals in France, see Damien Baldin, Histoire des animaux domestiques, XIXe–XXe siècle (Paris: Seuil, 2014); Ghislaine Bouchet, Le cheval à Paris de 1850 à 1914 (Genève: Libraire Droz, 1993); Kathleen Kete, The Beast in the Boudoir: Petkeeping in Nineteenth-Century Paris (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994).

10 Adams, Julia, “1-800-How-Am-I-Driving? Agency in Social Science History,” Social Science History 35, 1 (2011): 1–17, 3Google Scholar.

11 Johnson, Walter, “On Agency,” Journal of Social History, 37, 1 (2003): 113–24, 113CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Shaw, David Gary, “Happy in Our Chains? Agency and Language in the Postmodern Age,” History and Theory, 40 (2001), 1–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Sewell, William H., “A Theory of Structure: Duality, Agency, and Transformation,” American Journal of Sociology 98, 1 (1992): 1–29, 19CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

12 Bruno Latour, Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005); Sayes, Edwin, “Actor-Network Theory and Methodology: Just What Does It Mean to Say that Nonhumans Have Agency?” Social Studies of Science 44 (2014): 134–49CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

13 Tim Ingold, “The Animal in the Study of Humanity,” in Tim Ingold, ed., What Is an Animal? (London: Routledge, 1988), 95; Steward, Helen, “Animal Agency,” Inquiry 52, 3 (2009): 217–31, 226CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

14 Pearson, Chris “Dogs, History, and Agency,” History and Theory 52, 4 (2013): 128–45CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

15 Steinberg, Ted, “Down to Earth: Nature, Agency, and Power in History,” American Historical Review 107, 3 (2002): 798–820CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Shaw, David Gary, “The Torturer's Horse: Agency and Animals in History,” History and Theory 52, 4 (2013): 146–67CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Sandra Swart, Riding High: Horses, Humans, and History in South Africa (Johannesburg: Wits University Press, 2010).

16 Susan J. Pearson and Mary Weismantel, “Does ‘The Animal’ Exist? Toward a Theory of Social Life with Animals,” in Dorothee Brantz, ed., Beastly Natures: Animals, Humans, and the Study of History (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2010), 27.

17 Frederick Cooper, Colonialism in Question: Theory, Knowledge, History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 113–49.

18 “Les chiens, agents de police,” Mon Dimanche, 18 Mar. 1904.

19 F. Azouvi, Descartes et la France: histoire d'une passion nationale (Paris: Fayard, 2002), 252–92. On the varied reception of Cartesian views on animals within French history, see George Boas, The Happy Beast in French Thought of the Seventeenth Century (New York: Octagon Books, 1966 [1933]); L. Cohen Rosenfield, From Beast-Machine to Man-Machine: Animal Soul in French Letters from Descartes to La Mettrie (New York: Oxford University Press, 1941), 205; Wallmann, Elisabeth, “On Poets and Insects: Figures of the Human and Figures of the Insect in Pierre Perrin's Divers insects (1645),” French History 28, 2 (2014): 172–87CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Sahlins, Peter, “The Beast Within: Animals in the First Xenotransfusion Experiments in France, ca. 1667–68,” Representations 129 (Winter 2015): 25–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

20 Dewsbury, Donald A., “Issues in Comparative Psychology at the Dawn of the 20th Century,” American Psychologist 55, 7 (2000): 750–53CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

21 In this vein, Edmund Ramsden and Duncan Wilson have convincingly shown that changing notions of animals and suicide drew from and informed psychological understandings of suicide in humans; “The Suicidal Animal: Science and the Nature of Self-Destruction,” Past and Present 224 (2014): 205–17Google ScholarPubMed.

22 Kete, Beast in the Boudoir; Christophe Traïni, La cause animale 1820–1980: essai de sociologie historique (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2011); Rémy, Catherine, “Men Seeking Monkey-Glands”: The Controversial Xenotransplantations of Doctor Voronoff (1910–1930),” French History 28, 2 (2014): 226–40CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

23 Ruth Harris, Murders and Madness: Medicine, Law and Society in the Fin-de-Siècle (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), 40.

24 Gustave Le Bon, The Crowd (New Brunswick: Transaction, 1997 [1895]), 137–38. On the reception of Le Bon, see Robert A. Nye, The Origins of Crowd Psychology: Gustave Le Bon and the Crisis of Mass Democracy in the Third Republic (London: Sage, 1975), 3.

25 Harris, Murders and Madness, 14.

26 Carter, Bob and Charles, Nickie, “Animals, Agency and Resistance,” Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour 43, 3 (2013): 330–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

27 For a critique of animal agency as resistance, see Pearson, Chris, “Beyond Resistance: Nonhuman Agency for a ‘More-Than-Human’ World,” European Review of History 22, 5 (2015): 709–25CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

28 Jean-Marc Berlière, Le monde des polices en France (Bruxelles: Editions Complexe, 1996), 53–59; Freundschuh, Aaron, “‘New Sport’ in the Street: Self-Defence, Security and Space in belle époque Paris,” French History 20, 4 (2006): 424–41, 425CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kalifa, Dominique, “Crime Scenes: Criminal Topography and Social Imaginary in Nineteenth-Century Paris,” French Historical Studies 27 (2004): 175–94, 176CrossRefGoogle Scholar; William B. Cohen, Urban Government and the Rise of the French City: Five Municipalities in the Nineteenth Century (Basingstoke: MacMillan, 1998), 82–84.

29 Kalifa, Crime et culture, 47, 59, 63.

30 Ernest Laut, “Le pays des apaches,” Le Petit Journal illustré, 22 Sept. 1907; Ernest Laut, “Police et criminalité,” Le Petit Journal illustré, 20 Oct. 1907; Kalifa, Crime et culture, 258; Nye, Crime, Madness and Politics, 199–200.

31 Freundschuh, “New Sport”; Louis Singer, Défendez-vous! le “Self-Defence” (Dijon: J. Delorme, n.d.).

32 Jean Robert (Silvio), Le chien d'appartement et d'utilité (Paris: Librairie Pairault, 1888), 49; Kete, Beast in the Boudoir, 47–48; Baldin, Histoire des animaux domestiques, 64–65.

33 Paul Cunisset-Carnot, “Préface,” in Pierre Saint-Laurent, Chiens de défense et chiens de garde: races, éducation, dressage (Bordeaux and Paris: Féret Fils/L. Mulo, 1907), x–xii.

34 Simon, Chien de police, 3–11. On degeneration, see Harris, Murders and Madness; Nye, Crime, Madness and Politics.

35 A.-C.-E. Bellier de Villiers, Le Chien au Chenil: De l’amélioration des race canines du lodgement, du pansage, de la nourriture, de l’exercice et de la condition de l’élève, soins thérapeutiques (Paris: Pairault et Cie, 1901), 117–18, 242.

36 Jennifer Davis, “Urban Policing and Its Objects: Comparative Themes in England and France in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century,” in Clive Emsley and Barbara Weinberger, eds., Policing Western Europe: Politics, Professionalism and Public Order, 1850–1940 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1991), 7–8; Nye, Crime, Madness, and Politics, 69–70.

37 Deluermoz, Quentin, “Circulations et élaborations d'un mode d'action policier: la police en tenue à Paris, d'une police ‘londonienne’ au ‘modèle parisien’ (1850–1914),” Revue d'Histoire des Sciences Humaines 19 (2008): 75–90CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

38 “Les chiens policiers,” Nos Loisirs, June 1907, 683–84. See also “Chien de police,” Le Matin, 4 Dec. 1908.

39 William Bolton, Recollections of a Police Officer Relating to Dogs with Useful Hints as to Their Treatment in Health and Disease: How to Break Your Own Retriever &c., &c. (Southport: Robert Johnson, 1878), 12.

40 William G. Fitz-Gerald, “The Dog Police of European Cities,” The Century, Oct. 1906: 823–31; Samuel G. Chapman, Police Dogs in America (Norman: Bureau of Government Research, University of Oklahoma, 1979), 6.

41 For instance, British dog breeder and trainer Edwin Richardson sent police dogs to India. Edwin H. Richardson, British War Dogs: Their Training and Psychology (London: Skeffington & Son, 1920), 38, 229. On policing and the growth of the modern state, see Brown, Howard G., “From Organic Society to Security State: The War on Brigandage in France, 1797–1802,” Journal of Modern History 69 (1997): 661–95CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gary Kinsman, Dieter K. Buse, and Mercedes Steedman, eds., Whose National Security? Canadian State Surveillance and the Creation of Enemies (Toronto: Between the Lines, 2000); Alfred W. McCoy, Policing America's Empire: The United States, the Philippines, and the Rise of the Surveillance State (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2009); John Merriman, Police Stories: Building the French State, 1815–1851 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006).

42 Shear, “Police Dogs.”

43 “Emploi des chiens comme auxiliaires de la police à Pont-à-Mousson: rapport du commissaire de police,” Journal des commissaires de police, Apr. (1907): 116. The recourse to Belgium and Germany, rather than Paris, highlights how French provincial authorities were “curious about urban experiences abroad.” Cohen, Urban Government, 257.

44 Saint-Laurent, Chiens de défense 9, 53–54; Paul Villers, “Le chien, gardien de la société,” Je sais tout: encyclopédie mondiale illustrée, vol. 2, July–Dec. 1907, 362–63.

45 Villers, “Chien,” 362–63; Archives de la Préfecture de police (hereafter APP), Paris, 138 W 1, “Mémoire sur la brigade canine: projet de restructuration de la compagnie cynophile” (Paris, Sept. 1994), 2. Newspaper reports portrayed the Bois de Boulogne as a poorly policed and therefore dangerous space plagued by Apaches. “A l'hôtel de ville,” Le Matin, 16 Dec. 1908.

46 Berlière, Monde des polices, 74–87; Cohen, Urban Government, 81.

47 Freundschuh, “New Sport”; Kete, Beast in the Boudoir, 68–69.

48 Status du club de chien de police, de garde-chasse et de douanier (Sceaux: Imprimerie Charaire, 1908), 1–7; APP 138 W 1, “Historique du club de chien de police,” 2. The kennel was later transferred to the eastern Parisian suburb of Charenton.

49 Lauth, Etude.

50 Carnet de juge avec nomenclature des penalisations spécifiées dans le programme des epreuves concours de dressage de chiens de défense et de police (Paris: Imprimerie française, Maison J. Dangon, 1913), 4.

51 Réunion des amateurs du chien de défense et de police en France, Bulletin Annuaire, 1913–1914; Réunion des amateurs du chien de défense et de police en France, Programme des épreuves des concours de dressage de chiens de défense et de police (Paris: Imprimerie Française, 1913); “Les chiens de police luttent devant M. Fallières,” Le Matin, 10 May 1909.

52 “Chiens detectives,” Le Matin, 16 Apr. 1907.

53 Freundschuh, “New Sport,” 437–38.

54 Simon, Chien de police.

55 “Pour se débarrasser des apaches,” Echo de Paris, 7 Jan. 1907.

56 APP 138 W 1, “Organisation d'un Service de chiens de police,” 23 Sept. 1908; APP 138 W 1, Préfecture de Police, “Minute: chiens de Police,” 29 Dec. 1910.

57 Berlière, Préfet Lépine, 14; Kalifa, “Crime Scenes,” 182–84, 188–89.

58 “Les chiens policiers,” Le Journal, 30 Mar. 1907.

59 Niluar, “A propos de chiens de police,” Journal des commissaires de police, May 1907: 144. See also Degoutte, “Conseils pratiques aux propriétaires & éleveurs de chiens de police et de garde,” in Robert Gersbach, Manuel de dressage des chiens de police, Daniel Elmer, trans. (Lyon: Fournier, 1911), 11. Mégnin's publications helped popularize breed standards in France. Nos chiens: races, dressage, élevage, hygiène, maladies (Paris: J-B Baillière et Fils, 1909).

60 Gersbach, Manuel de dressage, 11, 152. On breeding, see Baldin, Histoire des animaux domestiques, 116–17; Kete, Beast in the Boudoir, 66–75; Ritvo, Animal Estate, 82–115.

61 “Les chiens policiers,” L'Eclair, 4 Mar. 1907.

62 Baldin, Histoire des animaux domestiques, 115–17; Duvernay-Bolens, Jacqueline, “L'Homme zoologique: race et racisme chez les naturalistes de la première moitié du XIXe siècle,” L'Homme 35, 133 (1995): 9–32CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

63 John Carson, “The Science of Merit and the Merit of Science: Mental Order and Social Order in Early Twentieth-Century France and America,” in Shelia Jasanoff, ed., States of Knowledge: The Co-Production of Science and Social Order (London: Routledge, 2004), 185; and “Mental Testing in the Early Twentieth Century: Internationalizing the Mental Testing Story,” History of Psychology 17, 3 (2014): 249–55, 251CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

64 Lalloué, Chien de guerre, 15–19.

65 Villers, “Chien,” 367. See also Niluar, “Chiens de police,” 143–44; Gersbach, Manuel de dressage, 168.

66 Joseph Couplet, Le chien de garde de défense et de police: manuel pratique et complet d’élevage et de dressage, 2d ed. (Bruxelles: J. Lebègue, 1909), 44–51, 78. Gaston de Wael likewise recommended shepherd dogs whose intelligence, “accommodating nature,” and “stamina” meant that it was almost as if nature had “prepared” them for human use. Le chien auxiliaire de la police: manuel de dressage applicable au chien de défense du particulier et au chien du garde-chasse (Bruxelles: Imprimerie F. Van Buggenhoudt, 1907), 25–39.

67 Saint-Laurent, Chiens de défense, 10, 17, 23.

68 “Emploi des chiens comme auxiliaires de la police à Pont-à-Mousson,” 116–17.

69 “Les chiens de police à Paris,” L'Eleveur belge, no. 30 (25 July 1909): 475.

70 “Championnat des chiens de police,” Le Matin, 17 Aug. 1908.

71 Chevandier, Policiers dans la ville, 463. The French police continue to use male and female dogs. Richard Marlet, Profession chien policier (Lausanne: Favre, 2011), 37.

72 “Les expériences de Vittel,” La Presse, 8 Aug. 1907.

73 Saint-Laurent, Chiens de défense, 49. See also de Wael, Chien auxiliaire, 25–39.

74 “A Thinking Bird,” Star, issue 7696, 4 May 1903: 2.

75 Pierre Hachet-Souplet, Le dressage des chiens sauveteurs (Paris: Institut général psychologique, 1907); Baldin, Histoire des animaux domestiques, 96.

76 Lachapelle, Sofie and Healey, Jenna, “On Hans, Zou and Others: Wonder Animals and the Question of Animal Intelligence in Early Twentieth-Century France,” Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 41, 1 (2010): 12–20, 14CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

77 Gregory Radick, The Simian Tongue: The Long Debate about Animal Language (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), 123–58. See also Robert Boakes, From Darwinism to Behaviourism: Psychology and the Minds of Animals (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984); Thomas, Marion, “Histoire de la psychologie animale: la question de l'intelligence animale en France et aux Etats-Unis au début du XXe siècle,” L'homme et la société, 167–69 (2009): 223–50Google Scholar; Daniel P. Todes, Pavlov's Physiology Factory: Experiment, Interpretation, Laboratory Enterprise (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002).

78 Lachapelle and Healey, “Hans, Zou and Others,” 14.

79 The police force had opened a training school in 1883, and developed new crime detection techniques based on fingerprinting, centralized record-keeping, and photography, and introduced new specialist units such as a river brigade service in 1900. Jean-Marc Berlière, “The Professionalisation of the Police under the Third Republic in France, 1875–1914,” in Clive Emsley and Barbara Weinberger, eds., Policing Western Europe: Politics, Professionalism and Public Order, 1850–1940 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1991), 44–47; Benjamin F. Martin, Crime and Criminal Justice under the Third Republic (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1990), 80–81.

80 Vicard and Rode, Chein estafette, 62–63.

81 Carson, “Science of Merit,” 186.

82 Professor Hebrant, “Préface,” in Gaston de Wael, Le chien auxiliaire de la police: manuel de dressage applicable au chien de défense du particulier et au chien du garde-chasse (Bruxelles: Imprimerie F. Van Buggenhoudt, 1907), 5.

83 Dewsbury, “Issues,” 752.

84 de Wael, Chien auxiliaire, 9–11, 14, 35, 57, 60–61.

85 Zoologist Louis Boutan attempted to apply these educational ideas to apes. Thomas, “Histoire,” 233–35.

86 de Wael, Chien auxiliaire, 24.

87 Simon, Chien de police, 29–31. See also Couplet, Chien de garde, 91; Lalloué, Chien de guerre, 24.

88 Radick, Simian Tongue, 123–58.

89 Kirk, Robert G. W., “In Dogs We Trust? Intersubjectivity, Response-able Relations, and the Making of Mine Detector Dogs,” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 50, 1 (2014): 1–36CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Radick, Simian Tongue, 201.

90 de Wael, Chien auxiliaire, 10, 56. See also Saint-Laurent, Chiens de défense, 25.

91 Lalloué, Chien de guerre, 24, 34. See also Couplet, Chien de garde, 93–94. Saint-Laurent, however, argued that the whip could be used “as a last measure” if the dog was “in revolt”; Chiens de défense, 29.

92 Gersbach, Manuel de dressage, 24.

93 Educators such as Félix Hément argued that children should act through a moral sense of what was right and wrong and not a fear of violence. Colin Heywood, Growing up in France: From the Ancien Régime to the Third Republic (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 161–65.

94 Some manuals, however, often offered guidance on the training of both kinds of dogs. Couplet, Chien de garde, 123.

95 Ibid., 96; Lalloué, Chien de guerre, 27–34; de Wael, Chien auxiliaire, 43–44.

96 Pemberton, Neil, “The Bloodhound's Nose Knows? Dogs and Detection in Anglo-American Culture,” Endeavour 37, 4 (2013): 196–208CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

97 Lalloué, Chien de guerre, 37–40.

98 de Wael, Chien auxiliaire, 51.

99 “Emploi des chiens comme auxiliaires de la police à Pont-à-Mousson,” 116–17.

100 Thomas, Marion, “Are Animals just Noisy Machines? Louis Boutan and the Co-Invention of Animal and Child Psychology in the French Third Republic,” Journal of the History of Biology 38, 3 (2005): 425–60CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed, 441–42; Thomas, “Histoire de la psychologie animale,” 233.

101 Urban space reportedly posed a threat to police dogs; de Wael stressed that police dog handlers needed to know what to do if their dog had been stabbed or shot; Chien auxiliaire, 53, 60.

102 Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (London: Penguin, 1991 [1975]). For a contemporary critique of dominance in dog training, see Westgarth, Carri, “Why Nobody Will Ever Agree about Dominance in Dogs,” Journal of Veterinary Behavior 11 (2016): 99–101CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

103 Edwin H. Richardson, War, Police and Watch Dogs (London: William Blackwood and Sons, 1910), 23.

104 Lalloué, Chien de guerre, 27.

105 “Emploi des chiens comme auxiliaires de la police à Pont-à-Mousson,” 117.

106 Laurent Mucchielli, “Criminology, Hygienism, and Eugenics in France, 1870–1914: The Medical Debates on the Elimination of ‘Incorrigible’ Criminals,” in Peter Becker and Richard F. Wetzell, eds., Criminals and Their Scientists: The History of Criminology in International Perspective (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 211–13. It should be noted that some French criminologists, such as Alexandre Lacassagne, opposed Lombroso's determinism; Nye, Crime, Madness and Politics, 191. Rabid dogs have been associated with criminality in France since at least the medieval period. Komornicka, Jolanta N., “Man as Rabid Beast: Criminals into Animals in Late Medieval France,” French History 28, 2 (2014): 157–71CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

107 John Kim Munholland, “Republican Order and Republican Tolerance in Fin-de-Siècle France: Montmartre as a Delinquent Community,” in Gabriel P. Weisberg, ed., Montmartre and the Making of Mass Culture (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2001), 21–22, 30; Lacassagne, Alexandre and Martin, Étienne, “Anthropologie criminelle,” L'année psychologique 11 (1904): 446–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hagins, Zachary R., “Fashioning the ‘Born Criminal’ on the Beat: Juridical Photography and the Police municipale in Fin-de-Siècle Paris,” Modern & Contemporary France 21, 3 (2013): 291–96CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mucchielli, “Criminology, Hygienism, and Eugenics”; Nye, Crime, Madness and Politics; Robert Tombs, “Crime and the Security of the State: The ‘Dangerous Classes’ and Insurrection in Nineteenth-Century Paris,” in V.A.C. Gatrell, Bruce Lenman, and Geoffrey Parker, eds., Crime and the Law: The Social History of Crime in Western Europe since 1500 (London: Europa, 1980), 214–37.

108 On dogs and state repression, see Robert Tindol, “The Best Friend of Murderers: Guard Dogs and the Nazi Holocaust,” in McFarland and Hediger, eds., Animals and Agency; McFarland and Hediger, Animals and War, 105–22; Skabelund, Aaron, “Breeding Racism: The Imperial Battlefields of the ‘German’ Shepherd,” Society and Animals 16, 4 (2008): 364–71CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

109 “Emploi des chiens comme auxiliaires de la police à Pont-à-Mousson,” 116–17.

110 de Wael, Chien auxiliaire, 57

111 Bellier de Villiers, Chien au chenil, 10.

112 Vanessa Schwartz, Spectacular Realities: Early Mass Culture in Fin-de-Siècle France (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999).

113 “La malle-poste défendue par les chiens de police,” Le Matin, 25 Oct. 1908; “La sécurité à Paris,” La Presse, 18 Apr. 1907; “Les débuts d'un chien policier,” Le Matin, 19 Nov. 1907. Overseas newspapers also reported on the police dogs' success against Apache gangs. See “Police Dog Puts Whole Apaches Band to Flight,” Call (San Francisco), 12 June 1910; “Police Dogs: How They Work in Paris,” Examiner (Launceston, Tasmania), 24 Feb. 1911; “Police Dogs Seize Apache,” Evening Argus (Owosso, Michigan), 9 Apr. 1914.

114 “Stop, le chien du brigadier,” Le Matin, 21 Apr. 1907.

115 “Emploi des chiens comme auxiliaires de la police à Pont-à-Mousson,” 120. See also Villers, “Chien,” 363, 366.

116 “Chiens policiers,” Journal des ouvrages de dames et des arts féminins (1908): 317Google Scholar; APP DB 41, A.-H. Heym, “Les chiens de police (suite et fin),” La “vraie police,” 15 Mar. 1902, 10; Les Faits-divers illustrés, 28 Nov. 1907.

117 “Les chiens-apaches à Paris,” L'Eleveur belge, no. 46, 14 Nov. 1911, 738.

118 “Les chiens de police de Neuilly-sur-Seine,” Le Petit Journal, 27 Feb. 1907.

119 “Un chien policier arête deux mystérieux malandrins,” Le Matin, 16 Dec. 1913.

120 “A travers Paris,” Le Matin, 7 June 1909.

121 Villiers, “Chien,” 363 (his emphasis).

122 “Max n'est pas psychologue,” Le Matin, 30 Dec. 1907.

123 On muzzling dogs, see Dr Belloli, , “La muselière des chiens,” Bulletin de la Société protectrice des animaux, vol. 8 (1862): 313–16Google Scholar; Maret-Leriche, A bas la muselière: pétition de messieurs les chiens et leurs maîtres adressée à M. le préfet de police (Paris: Librairie théâtrale, 1861).

124 Heym, “Chiens de police.”

125 “Chiens policiers.”

126 “Les chiens de Police,” Le Matin, 24 Oct. 1909; “Tribunaux,” Le Matin, 12 Nov. 1909.

127 Deluermoz, “Circulations,” 84.

128 Harris, Murder and Madness, 41.

129 Le Bon, Crowd, 52.

130 On the long history of the “beast within,” see Sahlins, “Beast Within,” 38; Joyce. E. Salisbury, The Beast Within: Animals in the Middle Ages (New York: Routledge, 1994). On its expression during discussions of rabies and sexuality in nineteenth-century Paris, see Kete, Beast in the Boudoir, 97–114.

131 Harris, Murders and Madness, 14.

132 Baldin, Histoire des animaux domestiques, 68.

133 By 1986, the French national police possessed 458 dogs, 315 of which were based in urban areas: APP 138 W 1, “Rapport,” 26 Oct. 1917; “Historique du club de chien de police”; Marlet, Profession chien policier, 28; APP 138 W 1, Ecole supérieure des inspecteurs de la police nationale, Sous-direction de la formation continue, Le centre national de formation des unités cynophiles, 1986, 10.

134 Susan Hurley and Matthew Nudds, eds., Rational Animals? (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006); Diane L. Beers, For the Prevention of Cruelty: The History and Legacy of Animal Rights Activism in the United States (Athens: Swallow Press and Ohio University Press, 2006); Ritvo, Harriet, “Animal Planet,” Environmental History 9, 2 (2004): 204–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Jean-Marie Schaeffer, La fin de l'exception humaine (Paris: Gallimard, 2007).