Hostname: page-component-6766d58669-tq7bh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-05-20T09:52:22.102Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

A REVIEW OF LABORATORY STUDIES OF ADULT SECOND LANGUAGE VOCABULARY TRAINING

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 October 2019

Caitlin A. Rice Open the ORCID record for Caitlin A. Rice [Opens in a new window]  and
Natasha Tokowicz Open the ORCID record for Natasha Tokowicz [Opens in a new window]
Caitlin A. Rice*
Affiliation:
University of Pittsburgh
Natasha Tokowicz*
Affiliation:
University of Pittsburgh
*
*Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Natasha Tokowicz, Learning Research and Development Center, 3939 O’Hara St., Room 634, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260. Email: tokowicz@pitt.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This review examines and integrates studies of second language (L2) vocabulary instruction with adult learners in a laboratory setting, using a framework provided by a modified version of the Revised Hierarchical Model (Kroll & Stewart, 1994), the Revised Hierarchical Model-Repetition Elaboration Retrieval. By examining how various training methods promote or fail to promote the development of high-quality orthographic, phonological, and meaning representations, and strong connections between these representations, we reconceptualize the current body of knowledge, and highlight gaps in the existing literature. We review evidence that training methods that only promote L1 to L2 form connections (e.g., massed repetition) are generally ineffective, but can become highly effective when paired with methods that also strengthen L2 form-meaning connections (e.g., spaced repetition training with retrieval practice or semantic elaboration requiring user-generated responses). We discuss the implications of these findings for researchers and educators interested in improving L2 vocabulary learning outcomes.

Information

Type
State of the Scholarship
Information
Studies in Second Language Acquisition , Volume 42 , Issue 2 , May 2020 , pp. 439 - 470
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2019 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

Footnotes

During the writing of this manuscript, CAR was funded by NSF 4T32GM081760-10. We greatly appreciate comments from Tessa Warren, Melinda Fricke, Sean Kang, and two anonymous reviewers on earlier versions of this manuscript.

References

REFERENCES

Atkinson, R. C. (1972). Optimizing the learning of a second-language vocabulary. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 96, 124–129. doi:10.1037/h0033475CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Atkinson, R. C., & Crothers, E. J. (1964). A comparison of paired-associate learning models having different acquisition and retention axioms. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 1, 285–315. doi:10.1016/0022-2496(64)90005-7CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Atkinson, R. C., & Raugh, M. R. (1975). An application of the mnemonic keyword method to the acquisition of a Russian vocabulary. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 1, 126–133. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.1.2.126Google Scholar
Bahrick, H. P., Bahrick, L. E., Bahrick, A. S., & Bahrick, P. E. (1993). Maintenance of foreign language vocabulary and the spacing effect. Psychological Science, 4, 316–321.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bahrick, H. P., & Hall, L. K. (2005). The importance of retrieval failures to long-term retention: A metacognitive explanation of the spacing effect. Journal of Memory and Language, 52, 566–577. doi:10.1016/j.jml.2005.01.012CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barcroft, J. (2002). Semantic and structural elaboration in L2 lexical acquisition. Language Learning, 52, 323–363. doi:10.1111/0023-8333.00186CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barcroft, J. (2003). Effects of questions about word meaning during L2 Spanish lexical learning. The Modern Language Journal, 87, 546–561. doi:10.1111/1540-4781.00207CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barcroft, J. (2004). Effects of sentence writing in L2 lexical acquisition. L2 Research, 20, 303–334. doi:10.1191/0267658304sr233oaGoogle Scholar
Barcroft, J. (2007). Effects of opportunities for word retrieval during L2 vocabulary learning. Language Learning, 57, 35–56. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9922.2007.00398.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barcroft, J. (2009). Effects of synonym generation on incidental and intentional L2 vocabulary learning during reading. TESOL Quarterly, 43, 79–103. doi:10.1002/j.1545-7249.2009.tb00228.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bartolotti, J., & Marian, V. (2014, January). Wordlikeness and novel word learning. In Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society (Vol. 36) (pp. 146–151). Quebec City, Canada: Cognitive Science Society.Google Scholar
Bartolotti, J., & Marian, V. (2017). Bilinguals’ existing languages benefit vocabulary learning in a third language. Language Learning, 67, 110–140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & Kucan, L. (2002). Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction. New York, NY: Guilford Publications.Google Scholar
Bertsch, S., Pesta, B. J., Wiscott, R., & McDaniel, M. A. (2007). The generation effect: A meta-analytic review. Memory and Cognition, 35, 201–210. doi:10.3758/BF03193441CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benjamin, A. S., & Tullis, J. (2010). What makes distributed practice effective? Cognitive Psychology, 61, 228–247. doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2010.05.004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bjork, R. A., & Kroll, J. F. (2015). Desirable difficulties in vocabulary learning. The American Journal of Psychology, 128, 241–252.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bolger, D. J., Balass, M., Landen, E., & Perfetti, C. A. (2008). Context variation and definitions in learning the meanings of words: An instance-based learning approach. Discourse Processes, 45, 122–159. doi:10.1080/01638530701792826CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brooks-Lewis, K. A. (2009). Adult learners’ perceptions of the incorporation of their L1 in foreign language teaching and learning. Applied Linguistics, 30, 216–235.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brysbaert, M., & New, B. (2009). Moving beyond Kucera and Francis: A critical evaluation of current word frequency norms and the introduction of a new and improved word frequency measure for American English. Behavior Research Methods, 41, 977–990. doi: 10.3758/BRM.41.4.977CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brysbaert, M., Warriner, A. B., & Kuperman, V. (2014). Concreteness ratings for 40 thousand generally known English word lemmas. Behavior Research Methods, 46, 904–911.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calfee, R. C., & Atkinson, R. C. (1965). Paired-associate models and the effects of list length. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 2, 254–265. doi: 10.1016/0022-2496(65)90004-0CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campos, A., González, M. A., & Amor, A. (2003). Limitations of the mnemonic-keyword method. The Journal of General Psychology, 130, 399–413. doi:10.1080/00221300309601166CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carpenter, S. K. (2009). Cue strength as a moderator of the testing effect: The benefits of elaborative retrieval. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 35, 1563–1569. doi: 10.1037/a0017021Google ScholarPubMed
Carpenter, S. K., & Olson, K. M. (2012). Are pictures good for learning new vocabulary in a foreign language? Only if you think they are not. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 38, 92–101. doi:10.1037/a0024828CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carrier, M., & Pashler, H. (1992). The influence of retrieval on retention. Memory and Cognition, 20, 633–642. doi: 10.3758/BF03202713CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cepeda, N. J., Vul, E., Rohrer, D., Wixted, J. T., & Pashler, H. (2008). Spacing effects in learning: A temporal ridgeline of optimal retention. Psychological Science, 19, 1095–1102. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02209.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chambers, F. (1991). Promoting use of the target language in the classroom. Language Learning Journal, 4, 27–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Choi, T. H. (2003, July). The effects of semantic and thematic grouping on learning efficiency and retention of the L2 vocabulary. Tokyo, Japan: Pan-Pacific Association of Applied Linguistics.Google Scholar
Coomber, J. E., Ramstad, D. A., & Sheets, D. R. (1986). Elaboration in vocabulary learning: A comparison of three rehearsal methods. Research in the Teaching of English, 20, 281–293.Google Scholar
Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 671–684.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Groot, A. M. B. (1992). Determinants of word translation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18, 1001–1018. doi: 10.1016/S0022-5371(72)80001-XGoogle Scholar
de Groot, A. M. B. (2011). Late foreign vocabulary learning and lexical representation. In de Groot, A. M. B. (Ed.), Language and cognition in bilinguals and monolinguals: An introduction (pp. 83–154). New York: Psychology Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Groot, A. M., & Keijzer, R. (2000). What is hard to learn is easy to forget: The roles of word concreteness, cognate status, and word frequency in foreign language vocabulary learning. Language Learning, 50, 1–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Groot, A. M. B., & van Hell, J. G. (2005). The learning of foreign language vocabulary. In Kroll, J. F. & de Groot, A. M. B. (Eds.), Handbook of bilingualism: Psycholinguistic approaches (pp. 9–29). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
De La Campa, J. C., & Nassaji, H. (2009). The amount, purpose, and reasons for using L1 in L2 classrooms. Foreign Language Annals, 42, 742–759. doi:10.1111/j.1944-9720.2009.01052.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dempster, F. N. (1987). Effects of variable encoding and spaced presentations on vocabulary learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 162–170. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.79.2.162CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dijkstra, T., & van Heuven, W. J. B. (1998). The BIA model and bilingual word recognition. In Grainger, J. & Jacobs, A. M. (Eds.), Localist connectionist approaches to human cognition (pp. 189–225). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Dijkstra, T., & van Heuven, W. J. B. (2002). The architecture of the bilingual word recognition system: From identification to decision. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 5, 175–224. doi:10.1017/S1366728902003012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students’ learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14, 4–58. doi:10.1177/1529100612453266CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elgort, I. (2011). Deliberate learning and vocabulary acquisition in a second language. Language Learning, 61, 367–413. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9922.2010.00613.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elgort, I., Candry, S., Boutorwick, T. J., Eyckmans, J., & Brysbaert, M. (2016). Contextual word learning with form-focused and meaning-focused elaboration. Applied Linguistics, 39, 646–667. doi: 10.1093/applin/amw029Google Scholar
Elleman, A. M., Steacy, L. M., Olinghouse, N. G., & Compton, D. L. (2017). Examining child and word characteristics in vocabulary learning of struggling readers. Scientific Studies of Reading, 21, 133–145. doi: 10.1080/10888438.2016.1265970CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, N., & Beaton, A. (1993). Factors affecting the learning of foreign language vocabulary: Imagery keyword mediators and phonological short-term memory. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A, 46, 533–558. doi:10.1080/14640749308401062CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Finkbeiner, M., & Nicol, J. (2003). Semantic category effects in L2 word learning. Applied Psycholinguistics, 24, 369–383. doi: 10.1017/S0142716403000195CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frishkoff, G. A., Collins-Thompson, K., Perfetti, C., & Callan, J. (2008). Measuring incremental changes in word knowledge: Experimental validation and implications for learning and assessment. Behavioral Research Methods, 40, 907–925.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gairns, R., & Redman, S. (1986). Working with words: A Guide to teaching and learning vocabulary (illustrated, reprint.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Gathercole, S. E. (2006). Nonword repetition and word learning: The nature of the relationship. Applied Psycholinguistics, 27, 513–543. doi:10.1017/S0142716406060383CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ghazi-Saidi, L., Perlbarg, L., Marrelec, V., Pélégrini-Issac, G., Benali, M. H., & Ansaldo, A.-I. (2013). Functional connectivity changes in second language vocabulary learning. Brain and Language, 124, 56–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2012.11.008CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gillette, J., Gleitman, H., Gleitman, L., & Lederer, A. (1999). Human simulations of vocabulary learning. Cognition, 73, 135–176.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hintzman, D. L. (2004). Judgment of frequency vs. recognition confidence: Repetition and recursive reminding. Memory and Cognition, 32, 336–350.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hintzman, D. L. (2010). How does repetition affect memory? Evidence from judgments of recency. Memory and Cognition, 38, 102–115.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hirshman, E., & Bjork, R. A. (1988). The generation effect: Support for a two-factor theory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 14, 484–494. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.14.3.484Google Scholar
Jiang, N. (2000). Lexical representation and development in a second language. Applied Linguistics, 21, 47–77. doi:10.1093/applin/21.1.47CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Joe, A. (1998). What effects do text-based tasks promoting generation have on incidental vocabulary acquisition? Applied Linguistics, 19, 357–377. doi: 10.1093/applin/19.3.357CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kang, S. H. K. (2016). Spaced repetition promotes efficient and effective learning. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 3, 12–19. doi:10.1177/2372732215624708CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kang, S. H. K., Gollan, T. H., & Pashler, H. (2013). Don’t just repeat after me: Retrieval practice is better than imitation for foreign vocabulary learning. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 20, 1259–1265. doi:10.3758/s13423-013-0450-zCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karpicke, J. D., & Roediger, H. L. (2008). The critical importance of retrieval for learning. Science, 319, 966–968. doi:10.1126/science.1152408CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaushanskaya, M., & Marian, V. (2009). The bilingual advantage in novel word learning. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 16, 705–710. doi: 10.3758/PBR.16.4.705CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kornell, N., Hays, M. J., & Bjork, R. A. (2009). Unsuccessful retrieval attempts enhance subsequent learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 35, 989–998. doi:10.1037/a0015729Google ScholarPubMed
Kroll, J. F., Michael, E., & Sankaranarayanan, A. (1998). A model of bilingual representation and its implications for L2 acquisition. In Healy, A. F. & Bourne, L. E. (Eds.), Foreign language learning: Psycholinguistic experiments on training and retention (pp. 365–395). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Kroll, J. F., & Stewart, E. (1994). Category interference in translation and picture naming: Evidence for asymmetric connections between bilingual memory representations. Journal of Memory and Language, 33, 149–174. doi:10.1006/jmla.1994.1008CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kroll, J. F., van Hell, J. G., Tokowicz, N., & Green, D. W. (2010). The Revised Hierarchical Model: A critical review and assessment. Bilingualism (Cambridge, England), 13, 373–381. doi:10.1017/S136672891000009XGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lawson, M. J., & Hogben, D. (1998). Learning and recall of foreign-language vocabulary: Effects of a keyword strategy for immediate and delayed recall. Learning and Instruction, 8, 179–194. doi:10.1016/S0959-4752(97)00016-9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laxén, J., & Lavaur, J.-M. (2010). The role of semantics in translation recognition: Effects of number of translations, dominance of translations and semantic relatedness of multiple translations. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 13, 157–183. doi: 10.1017/S1366728909990472CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lotto, L., & de Groot, A. M. B. (1998). Effects of learning method and word type on acquiring vocabulary in an unfamiliar language. Language Learning, 48, 31–69. doi:10.1111/1467-9922.00032CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Majerus, S., Poncelet, M., van der Linden, M., & Weekes, B. S. (2008). Lexical learning in bilingual adults: The relative importance of short-term memory for serial order and phonological knowledge. Cognition, 107, 395–419. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2007.10.003CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martin, K. I., & Ellis, N. C. (2012). The roles of phonological short-term memory and working memory in L2 grammar and vocabulary learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 34, 379–413. doi:10.1017/S02 72263112000125CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marzano, R. J., & Marzano, J. S. (1988). A cluster approach to elementary vocabulary instruction (Vol. 38). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.Google Scholar
Moore, J. C., & Surber, J. R. (1992). Effects of context and keyword methods on L2 vocabulary acquisition. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 17, 286–292. doi:10.1016/0361-476X(92)90067-9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morris, C. D., Bransford, J. D., & Franks, J. J. (1977). Levels of processing versus transfer appropriate processing. Journal of Memory and Language, 16, 519–533.Google Scholar
Nation, I. S. P. (2005). Teaching and learning vocabulary. In Hinkel, E. (ed.) Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 581–595). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Papagno, C., & Vallar, G. (1995). Verbal short-term memory and vocabulary learning in polyglots. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A, 48, 98–107. doi: 10.1080/14640749508401378CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pastötter, B., & Bäuml, K. H. T. (2014). Retrieval practice enhances new learning: The forward effect of testing. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1–5. http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00286Google Scholar
Pavlik, P. I., & Anderson, J. R. (2005). Practice and forgetting effects on vocabulary memory: An activation-based model of the spacing effect. Cognitive Science, 29, 559–586. doi:10.1207/s15516709cog0000_14CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perfetti, C., & Hart, L. (2002). The lexical quality hypothesis. In Vehoven, L., Elbro, C., & Reitsma, P. (Eds.), Precursors of functional literacy (pp. 189–213). Amsterdam, The Netherlands, and Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perfetti, C. A., & Marron, M. A. (1998). Learning to read: Literacy acquisition by children and adults. In Wagner, D. A. (Ed.), Advances in adult literacy research and development (pp. 89–138). Philadelphia, PA: Hampton Press.Google Scholar
Perrachione, T. K., Lee, J., Ha, L. Y., & Wong, P. C. (2011). Learning a novel phonological contrast depends on interactions between individual differences and training paradigm design. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 130, 461–472. doi: 10.1121/1.3593366CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Potter, M. C., So, K.-F., Eckardt, B. V., & Feldman, L. B. (1984). Lexical and conceptual representation in beginning and proficient bilinguals. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 23, 23–38. doi:10.1016/S0022-5371(84)90489-4CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Potts, R., & Shanks, D. R. (2014). The benefit of generating errors during learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 143, 644–667. doi:10.1037/a0033194CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Potts, R., & Shanks, D. R. (2017, November). The Memrise Prize: An international optimal learning research competition. In 58th Annual Psychonomic Society Meeting, Vancouver, Canada: Psychonomic Society.Google Scholar
Pressley, M., Levin, J. R., & Delaney, H. D. (1982). The mnemonic keyword method. Review of Educational Research, 52, 61–91. doi:10.3102/00346543052001061CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pyc, M. A., & Rawson, K. A. (2010). Why testing improves memory: Mediator effectiveness hypothesis. Science, 330, 335. doi:10.1126/science.1191465CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reichle, E. D., & Perfetti, C. A. (2003). Morphology in word identification: A word-experience model that accounts for morpheme frequency effects. Scientific Studies of Reading, 7, 219–237. doi:10.1207/S1532799XSSR0703CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Richland, L. E., Kornell, N., & Kao, L. S. (2009). The pretesting effect: Do unsuccessful retrieval attempts enhance learning? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 15, 243–257. doi:10.1037/a0016496Google ScholarPubMed
Roediger, H. L., & Karpicke, J. D. (2006). The power of testing memory. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 181–210. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00012.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Royer, J. M. (1973). Memory effects for test-like-events during acquisition of foreign language vocabulary. Psychological Reports, 32, 195–198. doi:10.2466/pr0.1973.32.1.195CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sagarra, N., & Alba, M. (2006). The key is in the keyword: L2 vocabulary learning methods with beginning learners of Spanish. The Modern Language Journal, 90, 228–243.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmitt, N. (2008). Review article: Instructed second language vocabulary learning. Language Teaching Research, 12, 329–363. doi:10.1177/1362168808089921CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schneider, V. I., Healy, A. F., & Bourne, L. E. (2002). What is learned under difficult conditions is hard to forget: Contextual interference effects in foreign vocabulary acquisition, retention, and transfer. Journal of Memory and Language, 46, 419–440. doi:10.1006/jmla.2001.2813CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seabrook, R., Brown, G. D. A., & Solity, J. E. (2005). Distributed and massed practice: From laboratory to classroom. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 19, 107–122. doi:10.1002/acp.1066CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sense, F., Behrens, F., Meijer, R. R., & van Rijn, H. (2016). An individual’s rate of forgetting is stable over time but differs across materials. Topics in Cognitive Science, 8, 305–321. https://doi.org/10.1111/tops.12183CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Service, E., & Craik, F. I. M. (1993). Differences between young and older adults in learning a foreign vocabulary. Journal of Memory and Language, 32, 608–623. doi:10.1006/jmla.1993.1031CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slamecka, N., & Graf, P. (1978). The generation effect: Delineation of a phenomenon. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Learning and Memory, 4, 592–604. doi: 10.1037/0278-7393.4.6.592CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Takashima, A., Bakker-Marshall, I., van Hell, J. G., McQueen, J. M., & Janzen, G. (2019). Neural correlates of word learning in children. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 37. Advance online publication. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2019.100649CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tang, J. (2002). Using L1 in the English classroom. English Teaching Forum, 40, 36–43.Google Scholar
Thios, S. J., & D’Agostino, P. R. (1976). Effects of repetition as a function of study-phase retrieval. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 15, 529–536.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thorn, A. S. C., & Frankish, C. R. (2005). Long-term knowledge effects on serial recall of nonwords are not exclusively lexical. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 31, 729–735. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.31.4.729Google Scholar
Tinkham, T. (1993). The effect of semantic clustering on the learning of second language vocabulary. System, 21, 371–380. doi: 10.1016/0346-251X(93)90027-ECrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tinkham, T. (1997). The effects of semantic and thematic clustering on the learning of second language vocabulary. L2 Research, 13, 138–163. doi:10.1191/026765897672376469Google Scholar
Tokowicz, N., & Degani, T. (2015). Learning L2 vocabulary: Insights from laboratory studies. In Schweiter, J. W. (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of bilingual processing (pp. 216–233). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Toppino, T. C., Phelan, H., & Gerbier, E. (2018). Level of initial training moderates the effects of distributing practice over multiple days with expanding, contracting, and uniform schedules: Evidence for study-phase retrieval. Memory and Cognition, 46, 969–978.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tseng, A., Doppelt, M., & Tokowicz, N. (2018). The effects of transliterations, thematic organization, and working memory on adult L2 vocabulary learning. Journal of Second Language Studies, 1, 141–165. doi: 10.1075/jsls.17018.tseCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turnbull, M. (2001). There is a role for the L1 in second and foreign language teaching, but.... The Canadian Modern Language Review, 57, 531–540.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Hell, J. G., & Candia Mahn, A. (1997). Keyword mnemonics versus rote rehearsal: Learning concrete and abstract foreign words by experienced and inexperienced learners. Language Learning, 47, 507–546. doi:10.1111/0023-8333.00018CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Hell, J. G., & de Groot, A. M. B. (1998). Conceptual representation in bilingual memory: Effects of concreteness and cognate status in word association. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 1, 193–211. doi:10.1017/S1366728998000352CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yang, J., Gates, K. M., Molenaar, P., & Li, P. (2015). Neural changes underlying successful second language word learning: An fMRI study. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 33, 29–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroling.2014.09.004CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yang, C., Potts, R., and Shanks, D. R. (2018). Enhancing learning and retrieval of new information: A review of the forward testing effect. Science Learning, 3, 8. doi: 10.1038/s41539-018-0024-yCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Supplementary material: File

Rice and Tokowicz supplementary material

Tables S1-S3

Download Rice and Tokowicz supplementary material(File)
File 30.3 KB