Introduction

Chapters 9 and 10 have revealed that the roles of formulaic sequences in second language production, comprehension and learning are various and complex. This chapter seeks to capture this complexity by developing a second language version of the first language model proposed in Chapter 7. Central to this will be the differences in use and extent of use of formulaic sequences in younger and older learners, and in naturalistic and taught learners. But first, we shall consider some puzzles which the model needs to be able to solve.

The Control and Use of Formulaic Sequences

The first puzzle is the one raised by Yorio's (1989) data. He found that the written English of a group of advanced ESL students in the United States contained a great many attempts at formulaic sequences, but that they were riddled with errors. For example, he found take advantages of; are to blamed for; those mention above; being taking care of; a friend of her; make a great job; on the meantime; with my own experience; put more attention to (pp. 62–63). Yorio's interpretation is that “these expressions are not simply memorized or taken in as wholes, but… are subject to whatever interlanguage rules the learner is operating under” (p. 62). The question, then, is: are they formulaic or aren't they? The examples seem close enough to their target not to be straightforward inventions. That means that the correct version has been encountered by the student, and that it has been recognized as formulaic.