In Chapter 1 the role of instructional materials in the language curriculum was discussed, and it was argued that effective instructional materials in language teaching are based on theoretically sound learning principles, are appropriate to the learners' needs, provide examples of how language is used, and provide opportunities for communicative and authentic language use. In this chapter, some of the theoretical principles underlying the design of listening materials will be examined. Any approach to the design of listening comprehension materials and classroom activities reflects a view of the nature of listening and the processes it involves. An understanding of the role of bottom-up and top-down processes in listening is central to any theory of listening comprehension, as well as recognition of the differences between the interactional and transactional dimensions of language use and how these affect listening. In this chapter, these views of listening are first elaborated and then applied to the design of instructional materials and activities for the teaching of listening comprehension.

Listening processes: bottom-up and top-down processing

Two distinct kinds of processes are involved in listening comprehension, which are sometimes referred to as “bottom-up” and “top-down” processing (Chaudron and Richards 1986). Bottom-up processing refers to the use of incoming data as a source of information about the meaning of a message. From this perspective, the process of comprehension begins with the message received, which is analyzed at successive levels of organization – sounds, words, clauses, and sentences – until the intended meaning is arrived at. Comprehension is thus viewed as a process of decoding.