Index

Sidney Xu Lu

Index

Note: Page numbers in italics indicate illustrative material.

Abe Isoo 安部磯雄, 110, 115, 118, 119–120, 121, 122–123, 124

Abiko Kyūtarō 安孫子久太郎, 67

Abiko Yunako 安孫子余奈子 (Tsuda Yunako 津田余奈子), 67

abortion regulation, 19, 33, 241–242

“Agricultural Centralism” (Nōhonshugi 農本主義; Yokoi), 129

The Agricultural World (Nōgyō Sekai 農業世界; magazine), 136

agriculture

agrarianist movement, 192–194, 216–218

and arable land in Japan, 187, 188

campaign for farmer migration in Brazil, 165–169, 194–197, 196

campaign for farmer migration in Northeast Asia, 151–152, 162–164

campaign for farmer migration in Texas, 135–137, 141–142

in coexistence and coprosperity discourse, 216–220, 225–226

debate on role of, 127–131

deterioration of rural economy, 190–194

and domestic land exploration and reform projects, 243–247, 248

in expansionist discourse, 126–127, 131–135

farmer migration in Manchuria, 151–152, 164, 171, 194, 223–229

growth of farmer migration in Brazil, 165, 171, 175–178, 222–223

and Hokkaido’s richness, 52–55, 53, 55

and ideology of permanent migrant settlement, 159–161, 175

and independence, 46

in Japanese literature, 126

kinō 帰農 (returning to agriculture), 46, 243, 248

and Lockean principle of land ownership, 13–14, 50, 59–60, 79

migrant farming efforts in Texas, 136–137, 142–145

success of farmer migration in Brazil, 169–174

Texas as ideal for farmer migration, 137–141

Agriculture and the Building of East Asia (Tōa Kensetsu to Nōgyō 東亜建設と農業), 225–226

Agriculture Journal (Nōgyō Zasshi 農業雑誌; journal), 46

Aikoku 愛国 (Patriotism; newspaper), 78

Aikoku Kōshin Kyoku 愛国行進曲 (“The Song of the Patriotic March”), 231

Aikoku Yūshi Dōmei 愛国有志同盟 (Federation of Patriots), 69, 77, 78, 82

Aikyō Kai 愛郷会 (Village Loving Society), 193

Ainu, 49–52, 51, 61, 91

Ajia 亜細亜 (newspaper), 82

Aliança

dissolution of, 220–222

establishment and goal of, 1–2, 206–207, 211–214, 218

relationship with Manchuria migration, 226

success and expansion of, 214–216, 215, 218–220

Alien Land Law (1913), 152–153, 160, 175

Amazon (River) Basin, 16, 146, 215, 247, 249

Amazon of the East (Tōyō no Amazon 東洋のアマゾン), 258

Amazon: So no Fūdo to Nihonjin (Izumi and Saitō), 16

Amerika 亜米利加 (magazine), 136

Andō Tarō 安藤太郎, 84, 86, 93–94

Anglo-American expansion

and global history of Malthusian expansionism, 26–33

as model for Malthusian expansionism, 11, 12–14, 22–23, 47, 49–50, 54–55, 74, 140, 248

Anglo-Japanese Alliance, 152

Aoyagi Ikutarō 青柳郁太郎, 166–168, 169–170, 195

Arai Hakuseki 新井白石, 50

Ashida Hitoshi 芦田均, 242

Asian American Studies, 271

assimilation, 133, 149, 154–159

Association for International Collaboration of Farmers (AICF: Kokusai Nōyū Kai 国際農友会), 250, 255–256

Association for Migration to the US (Tobei Kyōkai 渡米協会), 114

Association for Rural Rehabilitation (Nōson Kōsei Kyōkai 農村更生協会), 227

Association of Exploration and Self-Striving (Kaitaku Jikkō Kai 開拓自興会), 255

Association of Politics and Education (Seikyō Sha 政教社), 68, 73

Association of the People’s Friend (Minyū Sha 民友社), 105

Association of the Southern Cross (Minami Jūji Kai 南十字会), 258

Azuma, Eiichiro, 63, 70, 71, 73, 84, 94

Bansei Sha 晩成社 (Late Blooming Society), 58

“Be Fruitful, and Multiply!” (Umeyō, Fueyō 産めよ殖えよ; Takata), 189–190

Beikoku Ima Fushigi 米国今不審議, 61

beisaku 米作 (rice farming), 136, 138, 139–140, 141–144, 170, 176

beishoku 米食 (riceeating), 139

Beyond the Seas (Umi no soto 海の外; magazine), 210

birth control, 6, 12, 20, 122–123, 186–187, 228–229, 241–242

Bonin Islands (Ogasawara Guntō 小笠原諸島), 57, 89

Brazil

as alternative to US farmer migration, 146, 166

campaign for farmer migration in, 165–169, 194–197, 196

dissolution of Aliança in, 220–222

establishment and goal of Aliança in, 1–2, 206–207, 211–214, 218

government involvement in migration to, 168, 173–174, 199–203, 260

growth of farmer migration in, 165, 171, 175–178, 222–223

immigration quota in, 223

migration comparisons, 195

postwar migration to, 249, 256, 257–258

sea route to, 201

success and expansion of Aliança in, 214–216, 215, 218–220

success of farmer migration in, 169–174

Brazil as a Colony (Shokuminchi toshite no Burajiru 植民地としてのブラジル; Kawada), 168–169

Brazil Colonization Company (Burajiru Takushoku Gaisha ブラジル拓殖会社), 153, 168, 170, 174

Brazilian Colonization Company Limited (Burajiru Takushoku Kumiai [Burataku] ブラジル拓殖組合 [ブラ拓]), 202–203, 220–222

Brazilian Times (Burajiru Jihō 伯剌西爾時報; Noticias Do Brazil), 209

Brazil in the frigid zone (Kantai Burajiru 寒帯ブラジル), 26, 196

British expansion

and global history of Malthusian expansionism, 26–33

as model for Malthusian expansionism, 11, 12–14, 22–23

and Native American population decline, 49

The Broken Commandment (Hakai 破戒; Shimazaki), 126

bunmei 文明 (civilization), 50–52, 59–60, 66, 163, 214, 269–270

burakumin 部落民 (outcasts), 71, 89, 126

Bureau of Emigration (Imin Kyoku 移民局), 80

Bureau of Euro-American Affairs (Ōbei Kyoku 欧米局), 249

Bureau of Land Exploration (Kaitaku Kyoku 開拓局), 244, 245, 248

Bureau of Social Affairs (Shakai Kyoku 社会局), 177–178

Burns, Susan, 19

Business Japan (Jitsugyō no Nihon 実業之日本; magazine), 107

capitalism. See economy

Capron, Horace, 41, 50, 54

Carnegie, Andrew, 115

The Central Review (Chūō Kōron 中央公論; magazine), 107

China and Chinese

American exclusion of migrants from, 70, 77–78

First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), 101–102, 107, 108, 109, 111, 128

Japanese attitude toward, 74–77, 213, 269–270

and Japanese racial identity, 109–112

in Latin America, 86

Chinese Exclusion Act, US (1882), 77, 79, 89, 117

Chiso Kaisei Hō 地租改正法 (Land Tax Reform Law; 1873), 128

chō 町 (unit of land), 40, 143, 228

Choate, Mark, 32

Chōsen Nōgyō Imin Ron 朝鮮農業移民論 (On Agricultural Migration to Korea; Kanbe), 151

Christianity, 104, 108, 113, 115–117, 119, 121

chūnō 中農 (middle-class farmers), 227

civilization (bunmei 文明), 50–52, 59–60, 66, 163, 214, 269–270

Clark, William, 55

coexistence and coprosperity (kyōzon kyōei 共存共栄/kyōzon dōei 共存同栄)

discourse of, 1, 24–26, 212–214, 216–218, 217, 219, 220, 224–226, 252–254

failure of, 216, 220–222

as propaganda, 2, 212

coffee plantations, 165, 166, 167, 170, 174, 214

Cole, Joshua, 19

collective farmers (kumiai nōfu 組合農夫), 144, 145, 218

Colonial Agriculture (nōgyō takushoku gakka 農業拓殖学科), 256

Colonial Association (Shokumin Kyōkai 殖民協会), 95–97, 153–154

colonial expansion (shokumin 殖民, 植民)

relationship with migration, 7–10, 169, 266–274

as term, 15, 160–161, 266

See also Malthusian expansionism

Colonial Migration Association (Shokumin Dōshi Kai 植民同志会), 199

colonial nation (shokumin koku 植民国), 154

The Colonial Review (Shokumin 植民; magazine), 1, 195–196, 199, 215, 220

Commission for the Investigation of the Issues of Population and Food (Jinkō Shokuryō Mondai Chōsakai Iinkai 人口食糧問題調査委員会), 21, 184, 198

commonerism (heiminshugi 平民主義), 105

commoners. See heimin

Conference for Overseas Colonial Migration (Kaigai Shokumin Taikai 海外植民大会), 199

contraception, 6, 12, 20, 122–123, 186–187, 228–229, 241–242

cosmopolitanism, 252–254, 271

cotton farming, 139, 170, 172, 222–223

Dai Nihon Bōchō Ron 大日本膨張論 (On the Expansion of the Great Japan; Tokutomi), 101, 106

Dai Nihon Bunmei Kyōkai 大日本文明協会 (Great Japan Civilization Association), 148

Daitōa Kyōei Ken 大東亜共栄圏 (Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere), 2, 24, 206, 212

The Dancing Girl (Maihime 舞姫; Mori), 105

Danger Spots in World Population (Thompson), 190

Darwin, Charles and Darwinism, 26, 50, 72, 90–92

Davenport, Charles B., 148

de-Asianization (datsuaron 脱亜論), 109–110, 269

dekasegi 出稼 (temporary labor migration), 117

dekasegi konsei 出稼ぎ根性 (sojourning mentality), 132, 160

demography

connection to prosperity and racial superiority, 4, 12, 31, 43–44, 49–50, 90–92

and overpopulation anxiety, 43–44, 184–185, 186–190, 237–242

reports, surveys, and censuses, 4, 12, 20, 41–43, 87, 184

rise as discipline, 27, 42–43

of world, 60

See also Malthusian expansionism

Department of Migration (Imin Ka 移民課), 249

Department of Statistics (Seihyō Ka 政表課), 42

Department of the Producers’ Cooperation, 218

diaspora, as concept, 272

Dickinson, Frederick, 161, 162

dojin 土人 (native people), 61

domestic land exploration programs, 40–41, 243–247, 248 See also Hokkaido migration

The Drifting Cloud (Ukigumo 浮雲; Futabatei), 105

Dutch Learning (Rangaku 蘭学), 42, 60

East (Tōyō 東洋), 81

“Economic Strategies in the South Seas” (Nan’yō Keiryaku Ron 南洋経略論; Taguchi), 92

economy

benefits of heimin migration to US, 119

deterioration of rural, 190–194

and labor movement, 107–109

rapid postwar growth, 259

relationship with Malthusian expansionism, 15–16

richness of Hokkaido, 52–55, 53

richness of South Seas, 92–93

Education Times (Kyōiku Jiron 教育時論; magazine), 136

Elkins, Caroline, 9

emigration (imin 移民), relationship with colonial expansion, 7–10, 169, 266–274 See also Malthusian expansionism

Emigration Association (Nihon Imin Kyōkai 日本移民協会), 148, 149–150, 153–155, 160, 162

Emigration Protection Law (Imin Hogo Hō 移民保護法; 1896), 20, 94, 112

employment

desire for, 106

and discourses on heimin migration, 112–119

labor migration in Brazil, 167, 169, 170, 173–174

labor movement, 107–109

lack of opportunities for, 105–106, 184

enlightenment campaign (keihatsu undō 啓発運動), 155–159, 162

gai teki keihatsu 外的啓発 (external enlightenment), 155

nai teki keihatsu 内的啓発 (internal enlightenment), 155

Enomoto Takeaki 榎本武揚, 80, 84, 93–94, 95

Ensei 遠征 (newspaper), 84–86, 94

Ensei Sha 遠征社 (Expedition Society), 73

An Essay on the Principle of Population (Malthus), 28

Eugenic Protection Law (Yūsei Hogo Hō 優生保護法; 1948), 33, 241

eugenics, 6, 20–21, 33, 122–123, 148, 186–187, 241

external enlightenment (gai teki keihatsu 外的啓発), 155

Ezo 蝦夷 (native people of Hokkaido), 61

Ezo Kyōwakoku 蝦夷共和国 (Republic of Ezo), 94

Ezoshi 蝦夷誌 (The Study of Ezo; Arai), 50

farmer migration. See agriculture; owner-farmers

farmer-soldier program (tondenhei 屯田兵), 40–41

Federation of Overseas Associations (Kaigai Kyōkai Rengōkai [Kaikyōren] 海外協会連合会 [海協連]), 237–239, 249, 259

Federation of Overseas Migration Cooperative Societies (Kaigai Ijū Kumiai Rengōkai 海外移住組合連合会), 202, 220, 221

Federation of Patriots (Aikoku Yūshi Dōmei 愛国有志同盟), 69, 77, 78, 82

female migrants, 63–67, 118, 155–159, 175, 231

Fillmore, Millard, 50

First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), 101–102, 107, 108, 109, 111, 128

Franklin, Benjamin, 27–28, 59

Freedom and People’s Rights Movement (1874–1890s), 45, 69–70, 73

Friend of the Nation (Kokumin no Tomo 国民之友; magazine), 105, 106, 109

fugen 富源 (sources of wealth), 16, 66, 92, 224

Fujikane, Candace, 271

Fujita Toshirō 藤田敏郎, 84

Fujitani, Takashi, 8, 12, 241, 256

fukoku kyōhei 富国強兵 (enriching the nation, strengthening the army), 19

Fukumoto Nichinan 福本日南, 67

Fukushima prefecture, 224

Fukuzawa Yukichi 福沢諭吉

involvement in Tokyo Geography Society, 93

on population growth, 43–44

on prostitutes, 65–66

on race, 64, 109, 110, 269

on shizoku success, 45

Taiwan migration campaign, 66

US migration campaign, 58–59, 61–63, 69

on women’s education, 64–65

The Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina (Locke), 13

Futabatei Shimei 二葉亭四迷, 105

The Future Japan (Shōrai no Nihon 将来之日本; Tokutomi), 104–105

Gaikō Jihō 外交時報 (Revue Diplomatique; journal), 24

Gaimushō 外務省 (Ministry of Foreign Affairs), 20, 22–26, 135–136, 144, 160, 198, 246, 249–250, 258

Gakumon no Susume 学問の勧め (Fukuzawa), 45

Gakunō Sha 学農社 (Society of Agriculture Study), 46, 130

Garon, Sheldon, 19

Geary Act (1892), 77

Geiger, Andrea, 126

Gentlemen’s Agreement (1907), 20, 120–121, 144, 156, 209

German expansion, 32

GHQ (General Headquarters of the Allied occupation of Japan), 237, 244

gijutsu imin 技術移民/kaihatsu imin 開発移民 (migration of technicians and developers), 250

Gondō Seikyō 権藤成卿, 216

Gordon, Andrew, 123

Gouger, Robert, 29

government

and context for Malthusian expansionism, 18–22

domestic land exploration and reform projects, 243–247, 248

Freedom and People’s Rights Movement, 45, 69–70, 73

involvement in Hokkaido migration, 56

involvement in land ownership, 193

involvement in southward expansion, 90, 150, 153, 163–164, 168, 173–174

involvement in US migration, 112–113, 115, 121, 135–136, 144, 149–150

oppression of working class, 114–115

as welfare state, 240–241

See also migration state

A Grand View of the Sources of Wealth in South America (Nanbei Fugen Taikan 南米富源大観; Nanba), 197

Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere (Daitōa Kyōei Ken 大東亜共栄圏), 2, 24, 206, 212

Great Japan Civilization Association (Dai Nihon Bunmei Kyōkai 大日本文明協会), 148

Great Kantō Earthquake (Kantō Dai Shinsai 関東大震災; 1923), 178, 184

guidebooks, 61, 70

Guidelines of Conducting Emergent Land Exploration (Kinkyū Kaitaku Jigyō Jisshitsu Yōryō 緊急開拓事業実施要領), 243

gumin 愚民 (ignorant people), 12

Hakai 破戒 (The Broken Commandment; Shimazaki), 126

hakkō ichiu 八紘一宇 (eight corners under one roof), 230

Hakujin no omoni 白人の重荷 (White Man’s burden), 163

Hamada Kenjirō, 87

Hankan Hanmin 半官半民 (semi-governmental organizations), 150, 163, 201, 210

Hankins, Joseph, 126

Hatō Banri 波濤万里 (“Thousands of Miles of Waves”), 230–231

Hattori Tōru 浜田健次郎, 88

Hawaiʻi

calls for migration to, 81–82, 83

contract laborers in, 57, 59

in southward expansion discourse, 71–72

Hawai Koku Fūdo Ryakuki 布哇国風土略記 (A Short Description of the Society and Culture of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi; Konishi), 81–82

Hayashi Shigeatsu 林茂淳, 184

heimin 平民 (commoners)

association with labor movement, 107–109

compared to shizoku, 102, 104

decline of migration to US, 119–121

discourses on migration of, 102, 112–119

as laborers and farmers, 127

rise of, 103–106

heiminshugi 平民主義 (commonerism), 105

Heredity in Relationship to Eugenics (Davenport), 148

Hiraoka Hikotarō 平岡彦太郎, 130–131, 132

hi shokumin koku 非植民国 (non-colonial nation), 154

“The History of Overseas Migration” (Kaigai Ijū no Rekishi 海外移住の歴史), 267

hitsuyō aku 必要悪 (necessary evil), 65

Ho’an Jōrei 保安条例 (Public Peace Preservation Law; 1887), 69

Hokkaido Development Agency (Kaitakushi 開拓使), 40–41, 46, 50–52, 54, 55, 56, 63–64, 198

Hokkaido Kaitaku Kinenkan 北海道開拓記念館 (Historical Museum of Hokkaido), 263

Hokkaido Kaitaku Zasshi 北海道開拓雑誌 (HKZ: Hokkaido Development Journal), 46

Hokkaido Land Regulation (Hokkaido Jisho Kishoku 北海道地所規則; 1872), 51

Hokkaido migration

Ainu relocation, 49–52, 51

demographic surveys to legitimize, 41–42, 87

economic benefits, 52–55, 53

as intellectual foundation for later expansion, 67–68

vs. overseas migration, 87, 92–93

policy transformation, 55–57

proposals for, 40–41

and push for shizoku independence, 45–49

search for alternatives to, 58–59

Hokkō Sha 北光社 (Society of Northern Light), 142

Hokubei Nōhō 北米農報 (North American Agricultural Journal; journal), 209

Hokubei no Shin Nihon 北米の新日本 (New Japan in North America; Abe), 120

Iberian expansion, 13, 140

Ichioka, Yūji, 70

Iguape. See Brazil

Ikeda Hayato 池田勇人, 259

imin 移民 (migration), relationship with colonial expansion, 7–10, 169, 266–274

Imin Chōsa Hōkoku 移民調査報告 (journal), 136

Imin Hogo Hō 移民保護法 (Emigration Protection Law; 1896), 20

Imin Ka 移民課 (Department of Migration), 249

Imin Kyoku 移民局 (Bureau of Emigration), 80

Immigration Act, US (1891), 117

Immigration Act, US (1924), 24, 144, 150, 178, 186–187

Imperial Colonial Migration Company (Kōkoku Shokumin Gaisha 皇国殖民会社), 166

imperial government. See government; migration state

improvement, land (kairyō 改良), 243, 244–247

Industrial Bank of Japan (Nihon Kōgyō Ginkō 日本興業銀行), 153

industrialization and urbanization, 128–130, 191, 257, 259

Inoue Ishimi 井上石見, 41

Inoue Kakugorō 井上角五郎, 61–62, 97

Inoue Masaji 井上雅二, 163

Institute of Pacific Relations, 187

internal enlightenment (nai teki keihatsu 内的啓発), 155

international cooperation (kokusai kyōryoku 国際協力), 261

Iriye, Akira, 70, 121, 216

Iriye Toraji 入江寅次, 229

Ishibashi Tanzan 石橋湛山, 6

Ishiguro Tadaatsu 石黒忠篤, 191, 225, 227, 228, 244, 246, 248, 255, 256

Ishikawa Tatsuzō 石川達三, 186

isolation, policy (sakoku 鎖国), 154

Itagaki Taisuke, 69

Italian expansion, 32

Iwakura Mission, 64

Iwasaki Kiyoshichi 岩崎清七, 142

Izumi Sei’ichi 泉靖一, 16

Jackson, Andrew, 14, 30

Japan and Emigration (Nihon to Ijū 日本と移住), 237–239, 238

Japan and Hawaiʻi (Nihon to Hawaiʻi 日本と布哇; Toyama), 82

Japan Emigration Promotion Company Co. Ltd (Nihon Kaigai Iju Shinkō Kabushiki Gaisha 日本海外移住振興株式会社), 259

Japan Emigration Service (Kaigai Ijū Jigyōdan 海外移住事業団), 259

Japanese Agricultural Workers Program (Tannō: Nōgyō Rōmusha Habei Jigyō 農業労務者派米事業), 255

Japanese American News (Nichibei Shinbun 日米新聞), 67

Japanese Birth Control Study Society (Nihon Sanji Chōsetsu Kenkyūkai 日本産児調節研究会), 123

Japanese Emigration Association (Nihon Imin Kyōkai 日本移民協会), 148, 149–150, 153–155, 160, 162

Japanese National High School (Nihon Kokumin Kōtō Gakkō 日本国民高等学校), 248

Japanese Striving Society (Nippon Rikkō Kai 日本力行会), 1, 2, 115–117, 116, 119, 124, 125, 156, 208–209, 224, 226, 258

Japanese Young Women’s Christian Association (JYWCA 日本女子青年会), 67, 157

Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA: Kokusai Kyōryoku Jigyōdan 国際協力事業団), 261

Japanism/national essence (kokusuishugi 国粋主義), 68, 73

Japan of the World (Sekai no Nihon 世界之日本; journal), 109

Japan Overseas Migration Museum (Kaigai Ijū Shiryōkan 海外移住資料館), 267–271, 268, 270

Jefferson, Thomas, 14, 30, 248

Jiji Shinpō 時事新報 (Jiji News; newspaper), 61

jinkō kajō 人口過剰 (overpopulation), anxiety over, 43–44, 184–185, 186–190, 237–242 See also Malthusian expansionism

jinkō mondai 人口問題 (population problem), 184

Jinkō Seisaku Kakuritsu Yōkō 人口政策確立要綱 (“Principle to Establishing Population Policies”), 228–229

Jinkō Shokuryō Mondai Chōsakai Iinkai 人口食糧問題調査委員会 (Commission for the Investigation of the Issues of Population and Food), 21, 184, 198

Jinshu Kairyō Gaku 人種改良学 (The Study of Eugenics; Davenport), 148

jisakunō 自作農. See owner-farmers

jitsugaku 実学 (practical knowledge), 45

Jitsugyō no Nihon 実業之日本 (Business Japan; magazine), 107

Joshi Eigaku Juku 女子英学塾 (Women’s Institute for English Studies), 64

Jūkyūseiki 十九世紀 (The Nineteenth Century; newspaper), 77

Kagawa Toyohiko 賀川豊彦, 242

Kai Orie 甲斐織衛, 61

kaigai dōhō 海外同胞 (overseas compatriots), 230

Kaigai Dōhō Tokyo Daikai 海外同胞東京大会 (Tokyo Conference of the Overseas Compatriots), 229–230

Kaigai Fugen Sōsho 海外富源叢書, 16

Kaigai Fujin Kyōkai 海外婦人協会 (Overseas Women’s Association), 226

kaigai ijū 海外移住 (overseas migration). See southward expansion; United States

Kaigai Ijū Jigyōdan 海外移住事業団 (Japan Emigration Service), 259

Kaigai Ijū Kumiai 海外移住組合 (Overseas Migration Cooperative Societies), 202, 207, 220

Kaigai Ijū Kumiai Hō 海外移住組合法 (Overseas Migration Cooperative Societies Law), 21, 202, 220, 237

Kaigai Ijū Kumiai Rengōkai 海外移住組合連合会 (Federation of Overseas Migration Cooperative Societies), 202, 220, 221

Kaigai Ijū Kyōkai 海外移住協会 (Overseas Migration Association), 242–243

Kaigai Ijū no Rekishi 海外移住の歴史 (“The History of Overseas Migration”), 267

Kaigai Ijū Shiryōkan 海外移住資料館 (Japan Overseas Migration Museum), 267–271, 268, 270

Kaigai Kigyō Dōshi Kai 海外起業同士会 (Society of Friends of Overseas Enterprises), 136, 141

Kaigai Kōgyō Kabushiki Gaisha 海外興業株式会社 (Kaikō: Overseas Development Company), 163, 173–174, 175, 177, 178, 198, 209, 218, 237

Kaigai Kyōkai Rengōkai [Kaikyōren] 海外協会連合会 [海協連] (Federation of Overseas Associations), 237–239, 249, 259

Kaigai Shokumin Gakkō 海外植民学校 (School of Overseas Colonial Migration), 68

Kaigai Shokumin Ron 海外殖民論 (On Overseas Colonial Migration; Tsuneya), 95, 96

Kaigai Shokumin Taikai 海外植民大会 (Conference for Overseas Colonial Migration), 199

kaihatsu imin 開発移民/gijutsu imin 技術移民 (migration of technicians and developers), 250

kairyō 改良 (land reform), 243, 244–247

kaitaku 開拓 (land exploration), 40–41, 243–247, 248 See also Hokkaido migration

Kaitaku Jikkō Kai 開拓自興会 (Association of Exploration and Self-Striving), 255

Kaitaku Kyoku 開拓局 (Bureau of Land Exploration), 244, 245, 248

Kaitakushi 開拓使 (Hokkaido Development Agency), 40–41, 46, 50–52, 54, 55, 56, 63–64, 198

Kamiyama Jūnji 神山閏次, 173

Kamiya Tadao 神谷忠雄, 153

Kanbe Masao 神戸正雄, 151

Kanda Hideo 神田英雄, 195

Kantai Burajiru 寒帯ブラジル (Brazil in the frigid zone), 26, 196

Kantō Dai Shinsai 関東大震災 (Great Kantō Earthquake; 1923), 178, 184

Katayama Sei’ichi 片山清一, 63

Katayama Sen 片山潜, 108, 113–115, 118, 121–122, 124, 141–142

Katō Kanji 加藤完治, 192, 193–194, 216–218, 225, 228, 248

Katsura Tarō 桂太郎, 151, 168

Katsuyama Kōzō 勝山孝三, 87

Kawada Shirō 河田嗣郎, 168–169

Kawai Michi 河井道, 67, 157, 159

kazoku 華族, 106

keihatsu undō 啓発運動 (enlightenment campaign), 155–159, 162

Keiō School (Keiō Gijuku 慶応義塾), 58, 61, 109

kimin 棄民 (people abandoned by the nation), 186

Kinkyū Kaitaku Jigyō Jisshitsu Yōryō 緊急開拓事業実施要領 (Guidelines of Conducting Emergent Land Exploration), 243

Kinmouth, Earrl H., 106

kinō 帰農 (returning to agriculture), 46, 243, 248 See also agriculture

Kita Ikki 北一輝, 183

Kobe Migrant Accommodation Center (Kobe Imin Shūyō Jo 神戸移民収容所), 200

Kobe Migration Center (Kobe Ijū Assen Sho 神戸移住斡旋所), 249

Kodaira Gon’ichi 小平権一, 225, 255

kōdo keizai seichōki 高度経済成長期 (period of rapid economic growth), 259

kōhī yori hito wo tsukure 珈琲より人を作れ (cultivate people rather than coffee), 214

Kōkoku Shokumin Gaisha 皇国殖民会社 (Imperial Colonial Migration Company), 166

Kokumin no Tomo 国民之友 (Friend of the Nation; magazine), 105, 106, 109

Kokumin Yūsei Hō 国民優生法 (National Eugenic Protection Law; 1941), 20

kokusai kyōryoku 国際協力 (international cooperation), 261

Kokusai Kyōryoku Jigyōdan 国際協力事業団 (JICA: Japan International Cooperation Agency), 261

Kokusai Nōyū Kai 国際農友会 (AICF: Association for International Collaboration of Farmers), 250, 255–256

Kokusei Chōsa ni Tsuite: Kokumin Hitsudoku 国勢調査について国民必読 (Hayashi), 184

kokusuishugi 国粋主義 (Japanism/national essence), 68, 73

Kome Sōdō 米騒動 (Rice Riots), 160, 177, 184

Komura Jutarō 小村寿太郎, 145, 151–152

Konishi Naojirō 小西直治郎, 83

Konoe Fumimaro 近衛文麿, 229–230

Korean Peninsula

compared to Brazil, 196

farmer migration in, 151–152, 164, 194

Kosaku Chōtei Hō 小作調停法 (Tenant Mediation Law), 191

kosakukan 小作官 (tenant mediator), 192

Kōtoku Shūsui 幸徳秋水, 6, 122

Koyama Shizuko 小山静子, 63

Kuga Katsunan 陸羯南, 67

kugaku 苦学 (work-study), 116

kugakusei 苦学生 (work-study students), 108

Kumamoto prefecture, 218, 224

kumiai nōfu 組合農夫 (collective farmers), 144, 145, 218

Kuroda Kiyotaka 黒田清隆, 40, 46, 50, 54, 63–64

Kurose Hiroshi 黒瀬弘志, 2

Kyōiku Jiron 教育時論 (Education Times; magazine), 136

Kyōritsu Tōkei Gakkō 共立統計学校 (School of Statistics), 43

kyōzon kyōei 共存共栄/kyōzon dōei 共存同栄. See coexistence and coprosperity

labor. See employment

labor migration, in Brazil, 167, 169, 170, 173–174, See also heimin

The Labor World (Rōdō Sekai 労働世界; newspaper), 108, 114

land development and exploration (tochi kaitaku 土地開拓), 40–41, 243–247, 248 See also Hokkaido migration

land ownership

for civilized races, 50–52, 79

legislation against, 152–153, 160, 175

Lockean principle of, 13–14, 50, 59–60, 79

private, 57

taxation, 128

See also owner-farmers

Land Tax Reform Law (Chiso Kaisei Hō 地租改正法; 1873), 128

Late Blooming Society (Bansei Sha 晩成社), 58

Latin America

calls for migration to, 82–86, 85, 90, 92, 94, 256–258

Enomoto’s migration initiatives, 93–94

as source of wealth, 92–93

in southward expansion discourse, 72

See also Brazil

League of Nations, 161, 183

lifeline (seimeisen 生命線), 16, 224

The Light of Family (Ie no Hikari 家の光; magazine), 217, 218, 219

Li Xianglan 李香蘭, 253

Locke, John

The Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina, 13

and Lockean principle of land ownership, 13–14, 29, 50, 59–60, 79

Two Treatises of Government, 13

Loyal Hearts Society (Sekishin Sha 赤心社), 47–49, 58

Maihime 舞姫 (The Dancing Girl; Mori), 105

Malthus, Thomas and Malthusianism, 4, 12, 28–29, 49, 87

Malthusian expansionism

Anglo-American expansion as model, 11, 12–14, 22–23, 47, 49–50, 54–55, 74, 140, 248

as concept, 3–7

criticism of, 6

demise of, 261–262

global history of, 26–33

institutional context, 18–22

intellectual context, 11–16

international context, 22–26, 25

overpopulation anxiety, 43–44, 184–185, 186–190, 237–242

and settler colonialism concept, 7–10

social context, 16–18

Manchester Guardian (newspaper), 29

Manchuria

farmer migration in, 151–152, 164, 171, 194, 223–229

military expansion in, 222, 223

man’in Nihon 満員日本 (fully packed Japan), 258

Man Kan Shūchū 満韓集中 (concentrating on Manchuria and Korea), 151, 152

Manz, Stefan, 32

marriage, 147, 156–159, 158, 228–229

Marxism, 122

Matsudaira Masanao 松平正直, 143

Matsuhara Ichio 松原一雄, 144

Matsukata Deflation, 57, 128

Matsukata Masayoshi 松方正義, 43

Matsuoka Yōsuke 松岡洋右, 16

Mayflower Pilgrims, 47, 48, 74

McCarran-Walter Act, US (1952), 253, 255

Mexico, migration to, 84–86, 85, 91, 92, 94

middle-class farmers (chūnō 中農), 227

midwifery and midwives, 19, 20

migrant training centers (Takushoku Kunren Sho 拓殖訓練所), 198

migration (imin 移民), relationship with colonial expansion, 7–10, 169, 266–274See also Malthusian expansionism

migration of technicians and developers (gijutsu imin 技術移民/kaihatsu imin 開発移民), 250

migration state

central involvement, 177–178, 198–201, 218, 224, 227–229

and decline of overseas migration, 258–262

discourses of overseas migration, 250–258

emergence of, 18–19, 21, 185, 197

justification for and celebration of migration programs, 229–230, 251–252

local involvement, 201–203

and postwar reemergence of overseas migration, 237–239, 247, 249–250

See also government; Nagano prefecture

Minami Jūji Kai 南十字会 (Association of the Southern Cross), 258

Minbushōtatsu 民部省達 (Paper of the Ministry of Popular Affairs), 41–42

Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (Nōrinshō 農林省), 21, 22–26, 227, 228, 243–244, 247–250, 255, 258

Ministry of Colonial Affairs (Takumushō 拓務省), 198, 200, 247

Ministry of Culture and Education (Monbushō 文部省), 19, 198

Ministry of Finance (Ōkurashō 大蔵省), 251

Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Gaimushō 外務省), 20, 22–26, 135–136, 144, 160, 198, 246, 249–250, 258

Ministry of Home Affairs (Naimushō 内務省), 21, 198, 200

Minyū Sha 民友社 (Association of the People’s Friend), 105

mixed residence Japan (naichi zakkyo 内地雑居), 73

Miyake Setsurei 三宅雪嶺, 93

Mizuno Ryū 水野龍, 166–167, 173

modernization, 251–252

Momsen, Theodor, 133

Monbushō 文部省 (Ministry of Culture and Education), 19, 198

More, Thomas, 29

Mori Ōgai 森鴎外, 105

Morioka Emigration Company (Morioka Imin Gaisha 森岡移民会社), 173

motherhood discourse, 64–65

Murakami Shūnzō 村上俊蔵, 107–108

Museum of Japanese Immigration in Brazil (Museu Histórico da Imigração Japonesa no Brasil), 263–264

mushu no chi 無主の地 (unclaimed land), 51

Mutō Sanji 武藤山治, 75

Mutsu Munemitsu 陸奥宗光, 109

Nagai Tōru 永井亨, 5

Nagano prefecture, 207

dissolution of Aliança, 220–222

early efforts at overseas migration, 208–211

establishment and goal of Aliança, 1–2, 206–207, 211–214, 218

involvement in Manchuria migration, 224, 226

success and expansion of Aliança, 214–216, 215, 218–220

Nagasawa Betten 長沢別天, 70, 73–74, 75, 82, 89

Nagata Shigeshi 永田稠

Brazil migration campaign, 1, 209–210, 213–214, 218, 254, 257–258

involvement in Japanese Emigration Association, 160

involvement in Japanese Striving Society, 209–210

Manchuria migration campaign, 2, 226

on population growth, 242, 259

on US racism, 212–213

naichi zakkyo 内地雑居 (mixed residence Japan), 73

Naimushō 内務省 (Ministry of Home Affairs), 21, 198, 200

Naitō Hideo 内藤英雄, 220

Nakamura Masanao (Keiu) 中村正直 (敬宇), 45, 47, 64

Nakamura Sadao 中村貞雄, 177

Namikawa Tenmin 並河天民, 42

Nan’a Kōshi 南亜公司 (South Asia Company), 163

Nanba Katsuji 難波勝治, 197

Nanbei Fugen Taikan 南米富源大観 (A Grand View of the Sources of Wealth in South America; Nanba), 197

Nanbei Shokumin Kabushiki Gaisha 南米植民株式会社 (South America Colonial Company), 173

Nanbei Takushoku Kabushiki Gaisha 南米拓殖株式会社 (南拓) (Nantaku: South America Colonization Company), 146, 215

nanshin 南進. See southward expansion

Nantō Shōsha 南島商社 (Southern Islands Company), 89

Nan’yō 南洋 (South Seas), 71–72, 81See also southward expansion

Nan’yō Jiji 南洋時事 (Shiga), 72, 81, 93

Nan’yō Keiryaku Ron 南洋経略論 (“Economic Strategies in the South Seas”; Taguchi), 92

Nan’yō Kyōkai 南洋協会 (South Seas Association), 163

Nan’yō Saku 南洋策 (Strategies for the South; Hattori), 88

Nasu Shiroshi 那須皓, 24, 187–188, 189, 225, 255

national essence/Japanism (kokusuishugi 国粋主義), 73

National Eugenic Protection Law (Kokumin Yūsei Hō 国民優生法; 1941), 20

National Federation of Agricultural Migration Cooperative Associations (JATAKA: Zenkoku Takushoku Nōgyō Kyōdō Kumiai Rengōkai 全国拓殖農業共同組合連合会), 250

Native Americans

Ainu compared to, 49, 50, 61, 62

and westward expansion, 13–14, 30

native people (dojin 土人), 61

Naturalization Act, US (1870), 143

Neo-Malthusiansim, 6

“The New Homes of the Japanese Race” (Nihonjin no Shin Kokyō 日本人の新故郷; Tokutomi), 79

New Japan in North America (Hokubei no Shin Nihon 北米の新日本; Abe), 120

Nichibei Shinbun 日米新聞 (Japanese American News; newspaper), 67

Nihon Imin Kyōkai 日本移民協会 (Japanese Emigration Association), 148, 149–150, 153–155, 160, 162

Nihon Imin Ron 日本移民論 (On Japanese Emigration; Ōkawadaira), 132–133

Nihon Kaigai Iju Shinkō Kabushiki Gaisha 日本海外移住振興株式会社 (Japan Emigration Promotion Company Co. Ltd), 259

Nihon Kaigai Kyōkai Rengōkai [Kaikyōren] 日本海外協会連合会 [海協連] (Federation of Overseas Associations), 237–239, 249, 259

Nihon Kaizō Hōan Taikō 日本改造法案大綱 (An outline for the reorganization of Japan; Kita), 183

Nihon Kōgyō Ginkō 日本興業銀行 (Industrial Bank of Japan), 153

Nihon Kokumin Kōtō Gakkō 日本国民高等学校 (Japanese National High School), 248

Nihon Nōhon Ron 日本農本論 (On Japanese Agricultural Centralism; Hiraoka), 130–131, 132

Nihon no Shōnen 日本之少年 (The Youth of Japan; journal), 105

Nihon Sanji Chōsetsu Kenkyūkai 日本産児調節研究会 (Japanese Birth Control Study Society), 123

Nihon Shokumin Ron 日本植民論 (On Japanese Colonial Migration; Tōgō), 132–133, 161, 266

Nihon to Hawai 日本と布哇 (Japan and Hawaiʻi; Toyama), 82

Nihon to Ijū 日本と移住 (Japan and Emigration), 237–239, 238

The Nineteenth Century (Jūkyūseiki 十九世紀; newspaper), 77

Nippon Rikkō Kai 日本力行会 (Japanese Striving Society), 1, 2, 115–117, 116, 119, 124, 125, 156, 208–209, 224, 226, 258

Nitobe Inazō 新渡戸稲造, 15, 67, 129–131, 132, 161, 266

Nōgyō Honron 農業本論 (On the Foundation of Agriculture; Nitobe), 129–130

Nōgyō Rōmusha Habei Jigyō 農業労務者派米事業 (Japanese Agricultural Workers Program), 255

Nōgyō Sekai 農業世界 (The Agricultural World; magazine), 136

nōgyō takushoku gakka 農業拓殖学科 (Colonial Agriculture), 256

Nōgyō Zasshi 農業雑誌 (Agriculture Journal; journal), 46

Nōhonshugi 農本主義 (“Agricultural Centralism”; Yokoi), 129

non-colonial nation (hi shokumin koku 非植民国), 154

Nōrinshō 農林省 (Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry), 21, 22–26, 227, 228, 243–244, 247–250, 255, 258

North American Agricultural Journal (Hokubei Nōhō 北米農報; journal), 209

Northeast Asia migration

campaign for farmer migration in, 151–152, 162–164

farmer migration efforts in Korean Peninsula, 151–152, 164, 194

farmer migration efforts in Manchuria, 151–152, 164, 171, 194, 223–229

military expansion in Manchuria, 222, 223

Nōson Kōsei Kumiai 農村更生組合 (Village Renewal Cooperative), 245

Nōson Kōsei Kyōkai 農村更生協会 (Association for Rural Rehabilitation), 227

Noticias Do Brazil (Burajiru Jihō 伯剌西爾時報; Brazilian Times; newspaper), 209

Ōbei Kyoku 欧米局 (Bureau of Euro-American Affairs), 249

Ogasawara Guntō 小笠原諸島 (Bonin Islands), 57, 89

Okada Tadahiko 岡田忠彦, 210–211

Okawa Heikichi 小川平吉, 211

Ōkawadaira Takamitsu 大川平隆光, 131, 132–133, 134–135, 159

Okinawan migration, 6–7

Ōkuma Shigenobu 大隈重信, 90, 93, 148, 155, 162

Ōkurashō 大蔵省 (Ministry of Finance), 251

On Agricultural Migration to Korea (Chōsen Nōgyō Imin Ron 朝鮮農業移民論; Kanbe), 151

On Birth Control (Sanji Seigen Ron 産児制限論; Abe), 122

“On Creating Good Mothers” (Nakamura), 64

“On De-Asianization” (Fukuzawa), 65

On Japanese Agricultural Centralism (Nihon Nōhon Ron 日本農本論; Hiraoka), 130–131, 132

On Japanese Colonial Migration (Nihon Shokumin Ron 日本植民論; Tōgō), 132–133, 161, 266

On Japanese Emigration (Nihon Imin Ron 日本移民論; Ōkawadaira), 132–133

On Overseas Colonial Migration (Kaigai Shokumin Ron 海外殖民論 ; Tsuneya), 95, 96

On the Expansion of the Great Japan (Dai Nihon Bōchō Ron 大日本膨張論; Tokutomi), 101, 106

On the Foundation of Agriculture (Nōgyō Honron 農業本論; Nitobe), 129–130

Oriental Development Company (Tōyō Takushoku Kabushiki Gaisha 東洋拓殖株式会社), 15, 151, 164, 194

The Oriental Economist (Tōyō Keizai Shinpō 東洋経済新報; magazine), 136, 141

Osaka Asahi News (Osaka Asahi Shimbun 大阪毎日新聞), 166

Ōta Masataka 太田正孝, 240

outcasts (burakumin 部落民), 71, 89, 126

An Outline for the Reorganization of Japan (Nihon Kaizō Hōan Taikō 日本改造法案大綱; Kita), 183

overpopulation (jinkō kajō 人口過剰), anxiety over, 43–44, 184–185, 186–190, 237–242 See also Malthusian expansionism

overseas compatriots (kaigai dōhō 海外同胞), 230

Overseas Development Company (Kaikō: Kaigai Kōgyō Kabushiki Gaisha 海外興業株式会社), 163, 173–174, 175, 177, 178, 198, 209, 218, 237

overseas migration (kaigai ijū 海外移住). See southward expansion; United States

Overseas Migration Association (Kaigai Ijū Kyōkai 海外移住協会), 242–243

Overseas Migration Cooperative Societies (Kaigai Ijū Kumiai 海外移住組合), 202, 207, 220

Overseas Migration Cooperative Societies Law (Kaigai Ijū Kumiai Hō 海外移住組合法), 21, 202, 220, 237

Overseas Women’s Association (Kaigai Fujin Kyōkai 海外婦人協会), 226

owner-farmers (jisakunō 自作農)

in Brazil, 167–168, 170, 172–173

decline in population, 128

ideal of, 130, 135

in Japan, 192–193, 227–228, 244–246, 248

in Texas, 137, 141–145

Ozaki Yukio 尾崎行雄, 70

Pan-Asianism, 225–226, 253

Paper of the Ministry of Popular Affairs (Minbushōtatsu 民部省達), 41–42

Patriotism (Aikoku 愛国; newspaper), 78

Pearl, Raymond, 190

Peattie, Mark, 72, 90n, 164

Pedersen, Susan, 9

period of rapid economic growth (kōdo keizai seichōki 高度経済成長期), 259

personal success (risshin shussei 立身出世), 45–47

picture brides (shashin hanayome 写真花嫁), 147, 157–159, 158, 175

population discourse. See Malthusian expansionism

population problem (jinkō mondai 人口問題), 184 See also Malthusian expansionism

postwar Japan

decline of overseas migration, 258–262

discourses of overseas migration, 250–258

domestic land exploration and reform projects, 243–247, 248

overpopulation anxiety, 237–242

reemergence of overseas migration, 247, 249–250

poverty, as justification for migration, 20, 41, 42, 44, 87

practical knowledge (jitsugaku 実学), 45

Prado Jordão & Company, 165

Prefectural Board of Education (Shinano Kyōiku Kai 信濃教育会), 208, 209, 210, 224

“Principle to Establishing Population Policies” (Jinkō Seisaku Kakuritsu Yōkō 人口政策確立要綱), 228–229

Producers’ Cooperative Association (Sangyō Kumiai 産業組合), 216–218, 217, 219, 220

Producers’ Cooperative Law (Sangyō Kumiai Hō 産業組合法), 218

prostitutes, 65–66, 118

Protestant Christianity, 104, 108, 113, 115–117, 119, 121

Public Peace Preservation Law (Ho’an Jōrei 保安条例; 1887), 69

Qing Empire. See China and Chinese

race and racism

in coexistence and coprosperity discourse, 24–26, 183, 212–214, 224–225

competition, 72–77, 76, 79–80, 89, 95

efforts at Japanese American assimilation, 132, 149, 154–159

exclusion of Chinese and Japanese in US, 1, 3, 8, 24, 25, 70, 77–78, 131, 152–153, 178, 186–189

Japanese denouncement of white racism, 188–189, 194, 212–213

reimagining of Japanese identity, 109–112

superiority, 12, 49–50, 90–92, 91, 109

racial equality clause, 24, 161, 183

Rangaku 蘭学 (Dutch Learning), 42, 60

reform, land (kairyō 改良), 243, 244–247

reiniku kyūsai 霊肉救済 (spiritual and physical salvation), 117

religion, 104, 108, 113, 115–117, 119, 121

Reports of the Colonial Association (Shokumin Kyōkai Hōkokusho 殖民協会報告書), 97

reproduction regulation, 6, 19, 20–21, 33, 122–123, 186–187, 228–229, 241–242

Republic of Ezo (Ezo Kyōwakoku 蝦夷共和国), 94

The Review of Nations in the World (Sekai Kuni Zukushi 世界国尽; Fukuzawa), 59

Revue Diplomatique (Gaikō Jihō 外交時報; journal), 24

Rhodes, Cecil, 29

rice eating (beishoku 米食), 139

rice farming (beisaku 米作), 136, 138, 139–140, 141–144, 170, 176

Rice Riots (Kome Sōdō 米騒動), 160, 177, 184

Rikkō 力行 (Striving; magazine), 119

Rikkō Jogakkō 力行女学校 (Women’s School of the Striving Society), 156–157

Rinji Kokusei Chōsa Kyoku 臨時国勢調査局 (Temporary Bureau of Census), 184

risshi 立志 (aspiration), 116

risshin shussei 立身出世 (personal success), 45–47

Risshi Sha 立志社 (Self-help Association), 45n

Rōdō Sekai 労働世界 (The Labor World; newspaper), 108, 114

rōdōsha 労働者 (workers), 106 See also heimin

Root-Takahira Treaty (1908), 152

Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), 119–120, 131, 134

ryūmin 流民 (floater migrants), 270

Saibara Seitō 西原清東, 142–143, 146

Saikoku Risshi Hen 西国立志篇 (Nakamura), 45

Saionji Kinmochi 西園寺公望, 109

Saitō Hiroshi 斉藤広志, 16, 263

Sakai Toshihiko 堺利彦, 108

Sakiyama Hisae 崎山比佐衛, 68, 266

sakoku 鎖国 (isolation, policy), 154

salvation, spiritual and physical (reiniku kyūsai 霊肉救済), 117

samurai. See shizoku

Sand, Jordan, 121

Sanger, Margaret, 122, 242

Sangyō Kumiai 産業組合 (Producers’ Cooperative Association), 216–218, 217, 219, 220

Sangyō Kumiai Hō 産業組合法 (Producers’ Cooperative Law), 218

Sanji Seigen Ron 産児制限論 (On Birth Control; Abe), 122

São Paulo. See Brazil

Sapporo Agricultural College (SAC: Sapporo Nōgakkō 札幌農学校), 55, 67, 130

Saranillio, Dean Itsuji, 272

Satō Eisaku 佐藤栄作, 261

Satō Shōsuke 佐藤昌介, 57, 67

Satsuma Rebellion (1877), 45

Sawada, Mitziko, 121

Sawa Mōkichi 沢茂吉, 58

Scheiner, Irwin, 104

School of Overseas Colonial Migration (Kaigai Shokumin Gakkō 海外植民学校), 68

School of Statistics (Kyōritsu Tōkei Gakkō 共立統計学校), 43

Segawa Ushimatsu 瀬川丑松, 126

Seihyō Ka 政表課 (Department of Statistics), 42

Seikō 成功 (Success; magazine), 107, 108

Seikyō Sha 政教社 (Association of Politics and Education), 68, 73

Seikyō Sha thinkers, 73–74, 75, 80–82, 89, 110, 162

seimeisen 生命線 (lifeline), 16, 224

Seiyō 西洋 (West), 81

Sekai Kuni Zukushi 世界国尽 (The Review of Nations in the World), 59

Sekai no Nihon 世界之日本 (Japan of the World; journal), 109

Sekishin Sha 赤心社 (Loyal Hearts Society), 47–49, 58

Self-help Association (Risshi Sha 立志社), 45n

self-help and success, 45–47, 108–109

semigovernmental (Hankan Hanmin 半官半民) organizations, 150, 163, 201, 210

settler colonialism

defined, 9–10

relationship with migration, 3, 7–10, 271–274

See also Malthusian expansionism

“Seven Million People in A Small Territory” (Ōta), 240

Shakai Kyoku 社会局 (Bureau of Social Affairs), 177–178

shakai mondai 社会問題 (social issues), 20

shashin hanayome 写真花嫁 (picture brides), 147, 157–159, 158, 175

Shibusawa Ei’ichi 渋沢栄一, 153, 155, 168

shidō minzoku 指導民族 (leading race), 25

Shiga Shigetaka 志賀重昂, 67, 71, 72, 73, 81, 89, 91, 93, 97

Shih, Shu-mei, 272

Shimanuki Hyōdayū 島貫兵太夫, 115–117, 118, 119, 124, 155–157, 208

Shimazaki Tōson 島崎藤村, 126

Shimoina County 下伊那郡, 245

Shinano colony (Shinano Shokuminchi 信濃植民地), 213

Shinano Kyōiku Kai 信濃教育会 (Prefectural Board of Education), 208, 209, 210, 224

Shinano Overseas Association (Shinano Kaigai Kyōkai 信濃海外協会), 206, 210, 222, 224 See also Nagano prefecture

Shinano Shokumin Dokuhon 信濃植民読本 (Shinano Colonial Migration Reader), 208

shin fugen 新富源 (new sources of wealth), 92

Shin Nihon no seinen 新日本之青年 (“Youth of the New Japan”; Tokutomi), 105

shinnō 新農 (new farmers), 46

Shinsekai ni sankasu 新世界に参加す (we have joined the New World), 264, 267–271, 268, 270

Shinshuryoku 進取力, 88

shizoku 士族 (samurai)

declassed, 39, 44–45

decline of, 102, 104

Hokkaido migration proposals for, 40–41

as ideal for overseas migration, 59, 89–90, 97

impact on southward expansion discourse, 71, 72

push for independence of, 45–49, 57

shizoku jusan 士族授産 (shizoku relief), 46

Shōji Shunsaku 庄司俊作, 244

shokugyō no kannen 職業の観念 (desire for a career), 106

shokumin 殖民, 植民 (colonial expansion), 15, 160–161, 266 See also colonial expansion

shokumin 植民 (planting people), 160–161, 266

Shokumin 植民 (The Colonial Review; magazine), 1, 136, 195–196, 199, 215, 220

Shokuminchi toshite no Burajiru 植民地としてのブラジル (Brazil as a colony; Kawada), 168–169

Shokumin Dōshi Kai 植民同志会 (Colonial Migration Association), 199

shokumin koku 植民国 (colonial nation), 154

Shokumin Kyōkai 殖民協会 (Colonial Association), 95–97, 153–154

Shokumin Kyōkai Hōkokusho 殖民協会報告書 (Reports of the Colonial Association), 97

Shokumin Seisaku Kenkyū 植民政策研究 (colonial policy studies), 132

shokusan 殖産 (to develop the economy), 15

shokusan kōgyō 殖産興業 (to develop industry and trade), 39

Shōnō ni Kansuru Kenkyū 小農に関する研究 (“A study on small farmers”; Yokoi), 192

Shōrai no Nihon 将来之日本 (The Future Japan; Tokutomi), 104–105

A Short Description of the Society and Culture of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi (Hawai Koku Fūdo Ryakuki 布哇国風土略記; Konishi), 81–82

Sino-Japanese War, First (1894–1895), 101–102, 107, 108, 109, 111, 128

Smiles, Samuel, 45

Sōbō 蒼氓 (Ishikawa), 186

Social Darwinism, 26, 50, 72, 90–92

socialist movement

criticism of Malthusian expansionism, 6

discourses on heimin migration, 112–119

following decline of heimin expansionism, 121–123

and labor movement, 107–109

and rise of heimin, 103–106

social management, 19

Society of Agriculture Study (Gakunō Sha 学農社), 46, 130

Society of Friends of Overseas Enterprises (Kaigai Kigyō Dōshi Kai 海外起業同士会), 136, 141

Society of Northern Light (Hokkō Sha 北光社), 142

Soeda Jū’ichi 添田壽一, 153, 154–155

sojourning mentality (dekasegi konsei 出稼ぎ根性), 132, 160

“The Song of the Patriotic March” (Aikoku Kōshin Kyoku 愛国行進曲), 231

sources of wealth (fugen 富源), 16, 66, 92, 224

South America. See Brazil; Latin America

South America Colonial Company (Nanbei Shokumin Kabushiki Gaisha 南米植民株式会社), 173

South America Colonization Company (Nantaku: Nanbei Takushoku Kabushiki Gaisha 南米拓殖株式会社 [南拓]), 146, 215

South Asia Company (Nan’a Kōshi 南亜公司), 163

Southern Islands Company (Nantō Shōsha 南島商社), 89

South Seas (Nan’yō 南洋), as term, 71–72, 81

South Seas Association (Nan’yō Kyōkai 南洋協会), 163

southward expansion (nanshin 南進)

discourses of, 70–72, 79–81, 95, 162–164

vs. domestic migration, 86–88

economic benefits, 92–93

Enomoto’s initiatives, 93–94, 95–97

to Hawaiʻi, 81–82

ideal candidates for, 89–90, 97

to Mexico, 84–86, 85, 91, 92, 94

and racial hierarchy, 90–92, 91

See also Brazil

Spanish expansion, 13, 140

state. See government; migration state

statistics fever (tōkei netsu 統計熱), 12

Strategies for the South (Nan’yō Saku 南洋策; Hattori), 88

Striving (Rikkō 力行; magazine), 119

Striving Society (Nippon Rikkō Kai 日本力行会), 1, 2, 115–117, 116, 119, 124, 125, 156, 208–209, 224, 226, 258

The Study of Ezo (Ezoshi 蝦夷誌; Arai), 50

“A study on small farmers” (Shōnō ni Kansuru Kenkyū 小農に関する研究; Yokoi), 192

success and self-help, 45–47, 108–109

Sugi Kōji 杉亨二, 12, 14, 42–43, 60

Sugimura Fukashi 杉村濬, 166

Sugino Tadao 杉野忠夫, 227, 240, 252, 254, 255, 256–257

Sugiura Jūkō 杉浦重剛, 71, 81, 92

The Sun (Taiyō 太陽; magazine), 72, 107

Suzhou Yequ 苏州夜曲 (“Nocturne of Suzhou”; Yamaguchi), 253

Suzuki Bunji 鈴木文治, 123

Tachibana Kōzaburō 橘孝三郎, 192–193, 216–218

Taguchi Ukichi 田口卯吉, 22, 49, 56, 68, 89–90, 92, 93, 97

Taiwan, migration to, 66

Taiyō 太陽 (The Sun; magazine), 72, 107

Takaoka Kumao 高岡熊雄, 67

Takata Yasuma 高田保馬, 189–190

Takekoshi Yosaburō 竹越與三郎, 109–110, 162–163

Takemura Colonial Migration Company (Takemura Shokumin Shōkai 竹村植民商社), 167

takuchi 拓地 (to explore land), 15

Takumushō 拓務省 (Ministry of Colonial Affairs), 198, 200, 247

takushoku 拓殖 (explore land and increase), 15

Takushoku Kunren Sho 拓殖訓練所 (migrant training centers), 198

Tanaka Gi’ichi 田中義一, 215

Tannō: Nōgyō Rōmusha Habei Jigyō 農業労務者派米事業 (Japanese Agricultural Workers Program), 255

Tazaki Masayoshi 田崎仁義, 15, 189

Temporary Bureau of Census (Rinji Kokusei Chōsa Kyoku 臨時国勢調査局), 184

temporary labor migration (dekasegi 出稼), 117

Tenant Mediation Law (Kosaku Chōtei Hō 小作調停法), 191

tenant mediator (kosakukan 小作官), 192

Texan Japanese Association (Tekisasu Nihonjin Kyōkai テキサス日本人協会), 145

Texas

campaign for farmer migration in, 135–137, 141–142

as ideal for farmer migration, 137–141

in Japanese literature, 126

migrant farming efforts in, 136–137, 142–145

Thompson, Warren, 4, 31–32, 190

“Thousands of Miles of Waves” (Hatō Banri 波濤万里), 230–231

Tōa Kensetsu to Nōgyō 東亜建設と農業 (Agriculture and the Building of East Asia), 225–226

Tōbata Shirō 東畑四郎, 244

tobei 渡米 (migration to the US), 116

Tobei Kyōkai 渡米協会 (Association for Migration to the US), 114

Tobei Zasshi 渡米雑誌 (magazine), 136

tochi kaitaku 土地開拓 (land development and exploration), 40–41, 243–247, 248 See also Hokkaido migration

Tōgō Minoru 東郷実, 67, 131, 132–135, 159, 161, 266

Tōkai Etsurō 東海悦郎, 92

tōkei netsu 統計熱 (statistics fever), 12

Tokutomi Sōhō 徳富蘇峰, 79, 101, 104–106, 107, 109, 123

Tokyo Agricultural University (Tokyo Nōgyō Daigaku 東京農業大学), 256

Tokyo Conference of the Overseas Compatriots (Kaigai Dōhō Tokyo Daikai 海外同胞東京大会), 229–230

Tokyo Daily News Agency (Tokyo Nichi Nichi Shinbun Sha 東京日々新聞社), 199

Tokyo Economic News (Tokyo Keizai Zasshi 東京経済雑誌), 56, 58, 90

Tokyo Geography Society (Tokyo Chigaku Kyōkai 東京地学協会), 93

Tokyo Labor Society (Tokyo Rōdō Kai 東京労働会), 115

Tokyo Puck 東京パック(satire cartoon), 131

tondenhei 屯田兵 (farmer-soldier program), 40–41

Torii Akita 鳥居飽田, 87

total empire, 226

total war, 3, 16, 24, 205, 225, 228, 240

Tottori prefecture, 218

Toyama prefecture, 218

Tōyō 東洋 (East), 81

Tōyō Keizai Shinpō 東洋経済新報 (The Oriental Economist; magazine), 136, 141

Tōyō no Amazon 東洋のアマゾン (Amazon of the East), 258

Tōyō Takushoku Kabushiki Gaisha 東洋拓殖株式会社 (Oriental Development Company), 15, 151, 164, 194

Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1875), 52

Treaty of Versailles (1919), 24

Tsuda Jirō 津田次郎, 66

Tsuda Sen 津田仙, 45–49, 50–52, 53, 54, 57, 64, 66

Tsuda Umeko 津田梅子, 64, 66–67, 157

Tsuda Yunako 津田余奈子 (Abiko Yunako 安孫子余奈子), 67

Tsuishikari 対雁, 51, 52

Tsuneya Seifuku 恒屋盛服, 94–95, 97

Tsūshō Isan 通商彙纂 (journal), 136

Tsuzaki Naotake 津崎尚武, 214

Turner, Frederick Jackson, 30

Two Treatises of Government (Locke), 13

Uchida, Jun, 9, 164

Uchida Sadatsuchi 内田定槌, 136, 137, 139, 146, 167

Ukigumo 浮雲 (The Drifting Cloud; Futabatei), 105

Umesao Tadao 梅棹忠夫, 263–264, 267–271

Umetani Mitsusada 梅谷光貞, 220, 226

Umeyō, Fueyō 産めよ殖えよ (“Be Fruitful, and Multiply!” Takata), 189–190

Umi no soto 海の外 (Beyond the Seas; magazine), 210

unclaimed land (mushu no chi 無主の地), 51

United States

Chinese and Japanese exclusion in, 1, 3, 8, 24, 25, 70, 77–78, 131, 152–153, 178, 186–189

decline of Japanese labor migration to, 119–121

discourses of heimin migration to, 112–119

efforts at Japanese American assimilation, 132, 149, 154–159

first waves of Japanese migration to, 58–63, 69–70

and global history of Malthusian expansionism, 26–33

and Japanese denouncement of white racism, 188–189, 194, 212–213

postwar Japanese attitude toward, 248, 253–254

postwar migration to, 255

practices as model for Malthusian expansionism, 11, 12–14, 22–23, 47, 54–55, 74, 140, 248

race-centric worldview of migrants in, 72–77, 76

tension with Japan, 23–25

US advisors for Japanese migration efforts, 50, 54, 55

women migrants in, 63–64, 66–67, 118, 155–159, 175 See also Texas

urbanization and industrialization, 128–130, 191, 257, 259

Vanderbilt, Cornelius, 115

Village Loving Society (Aikyō Kai 愛郷会), 193

Village Renewal Cooperative (Nōson Kōsei Kumiai 農村更生組合), 245

Vlastos, Stephen, 45, 203

Wada Hiroo 和田博雄, 244

Wakayama Norikazu 若山儀一, 56, 68, 90, 93

Wako Shungorō 輪湖俊五郎, 209–210, 212, 213, 218

welfare state, 240–241

West (Seiyō 西洋), 81

White Man’s burden (Hakujin no omoni 白人の重荷), 163

white racism, denouncement of, 188–189, 194, 212–213

Wilmot-Horton, Robert, 29

Wolfe, Patrick, 9, 271

women, as migrants, 63–67, 118, 155–159, 175, 231

Women’s Institute for English Studies (Joshi Eigaku Juku 女子英学塾), 64

Women’s School of the Striving Society (Rikkō Jogakkō 力行女学校), 156–157

workers (rōdōsha 労働者), 106 See also heimin

World War I (1914–1918), 161–162, 170, 190, 214

World War II (1939–1945), 237, 239–241

Wrigley, E. A., 261

Wrobel, David M., 23

Yamagata prefecture, 224

Yamaguchi Yoshiko 山口淑子, 253

Yamamoto Jōtarō 山本条太郎, 164

Yanagida Tōkichi 柳田藤吉, 61

Yanaihara Tadao 矢内原忠雄, 161, 184, 266

The Yankees (Yankii ヤンキー; Nagasawa), 74, 82

Yano Jin’ichi 矢野仁一, 188–189

Yano Tōru 矢野暢, 72

Ye Lai Xiang 夜来香 (“The Night Willow”; Yamaguchi), 253

Yoda Benzō 依田勉三, 58

Yokoi Tokiyoshi 横井時敬, 129, 130, 192

Yoshisa Emigration Company (Yoshisa Imin Gaisha吉佐移民会社), 165

Yoshimura Daijirō 吉村大次郎, 136–137, 139–141, 148

Young, Louise, 190, 191, 208, 226

The Youth of Japan (Nihon no Shōnen 日本之少年; magazine), 105

“Youth of the New Japan” (Shin Nihon no seinen 新日本之青年; Tokutomi), 105

Yuan Shikai 袁世凯, 162

Yūsei Hogo Hō 優生保護法 (Eugenic Protection Law; 1948), 33

Zenkoku [Sangyō Kumiai] Rengōkai 全国産業組合連合会 (national headquarters of Producers’ Cooperative Association), 218

Zenkoku Takushoku Nōgyō Kyōdō Kumiai Rengōkai 全国拓殖農業共同組合連合会 (JATAKA: National Federation of Agricultural Migration Cooperative Associations), 250

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