Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cb9f654ff-d5ftd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-08-10T16:40:46.347Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

3 - Imperial institutions: armies, bureaucracies, and elites

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 June 2014

Alfred J. Rieber
Alfred J. Rieber
Affiliation:
University of Pennsylvania
Get access

Summary

If the struggle over the borderlands profoundly affected state-building in the multicultural societies of Eurasia, the reverse was also true. The two processes interacted with one another not only in shaping imperial ideologies, but also in constructing political and socioeconomic institutions. Three key elements in the evolving structures of empire were the army, the bureaucracy, and the ruling elites. This chapter deals with the ways in which these institutions and groups reflected the particular needs of a multicultural state in expanding and defending its military frontiers and imposing order in the borderlands.

The exercise of power in the multicultural states of Eurasia combined in different proportions elements of what Max Weber identified as charismatic, patriarchal, and bureaucratic forms of authority. As he noted, “the majority of all great continental empires had a fairly strong patrimonial character until and even after the beginning of modern times.” But pure patriarchalism probably never existed. In its most arbitrary forms it gradually diminished without entirely disappearing under the increasing need of the ruler for a more reliable system of raising revenue and a greater functional specialization in administration. In an imperial, multicultural system the personal authority of the ruler depended heavily on his ability to project charisma through myths, symbols, rituals, and ceremonies of power that had meaning for peoples of different cultures. But charisma, as Weber and others also remind us, is unstable.

Information

Type
Chapter
Information
The Struggle for the Eurasian Borderlands
From the Rise of Early Modern Empires to the End of the First World War
 , pp. 166 - 292
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2014

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Weber, Max, Economy and Society. An Outline of Interpretive Sociology, eds. Roth, Guenther and Wittich, Claus, 2 vols. (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1978), vol. II, p. 1007Google Scholar
Shils, Edward, “Charisma, Order and Status,” American Sociological Review 30 (April 1965): 201CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elias, Norbert, The Court Society (Oxford University Press, 1983), pp. 117–29Google Scholar
Lieberman, Victor (ed.), “Transcending East–West Dichotomies. State and Culture Formation in Six Ostensibly Disparate Areas,” in Beyond Binary Histories. Re-Imagining Eurasia to c. 1830 (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1999), pp. 71–75CrossRef
Hodgson, Marshall G. S., The Venture of Islam, 3 vols. (University of Chicago Press, 1974), vol. III, pp. 13, 18, 25–26CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murphey, Rhoades, Ottoman Warfare 1500–1700 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1999)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
di Cosmo, Nicola, “Did Guns Matter? Firearms and the Qing Formation,” in Struve, Lynn A. (ed.), The Qing Formation in World Historical Time (Cambridge, MA: Harvard East Asian Center, 2004), pp. 121–44Google Scholar
Parker, Geoffrey, “The Military Revolution 1560–1600. A Myth?” Journal of Modern History 48 (1976): 195–214Google Scholar
Parker, Geoffrey, The Military Revolution. Military Innovation and the Rise of the West, 1500–1800 (Cambridge University Press, 1988)Google Scholar
Arnold, T. F., “War in 16th Century Europe. Revolution and Renaissance,” in Black, Jeremy (ed.), European Warfare, 1453–1815 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999), pp. 23–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Childe, John, Warfare in the 17th Century (London: Cassell, 2001)Google Scholar
Black, Jeremy, “Military Organizations and Military Change in Historical Perspective,” Journal of Military History 62 (October 1998): 871–93CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennedy, Paul, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (New York: Random House, 1987)Google Scholar
McNeill, William Hardy, The Pursuit of Power. Technology, Armed Forces and Society since A.D. 1000 (University of Chicago Press, 1982)Google Scholar
Parry, V. J., “La manière de combattre,” in Parry, V. J. and Yapp, M. E. (eds.), War, Technology and Society in the Middle East (London: Oxford University Press, 1975), pp. 218–56Google Scholar
Imber, Colin, “Ibrahim Pecevi on War. A Note on the European Military Revolution,” in Imber, Colin et al. (eds.), Frontiers of Ottoman Studies. State, Provinces and the West (London: Tauris, 2005), vol. II, pp. 7–22Google Scholar
Hochedlinger, Michael, Austria’s Wars of Emergence. War State and Society in the Habsburg Monarchy, 1683–1797 (London: Pearson Education, 2003), p. 127Google Scholar
Inalcik, Halil with Quataert, Donald (eds.), An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 2 vols. (Cambridge University Press, 1994), vol. II, pp. 525–26
Wakeman, Jr. Frederic, “China in the Seventeenth Century Crisis,” Late Imperial China 7 (1986): 1–26CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zimanyi, Vera, Economy and Society in Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century Hungary (1526–1650) (Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1987), pp. 27–37Google Scholar
Braudel, Fernand, Civilization and Capitalism, 15–18th Century, vol. III: The Perspective of the World (New York: Harper & Row, 1984), pp. 441–55Google Scholar
Pintner, Walter, “The Burden of Defense in Imperial Russia, 1725–1914,” Russian Review 43 (1984): 15–35CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pintner, Walter, “The Nobility and the Officer Corps in the Nineteenth Century,” in Lohr, Eric and Poe, Marshall (eds.), The Military and Society in Russia, 1450–1917 (Leiden: Brill, 2002), pp. 243–45Google Scholar
Leonhard, Jörn and von Hirschhausen, Ulrike (eds.), “Multiethnic Empires and the Military. Conscription in Europe between Integration and Disintegration, 1860–1918,” in Comparing Empires. Encounters and Transfers in the Long Nineteenth Century (Göttingen: Candenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2011)
Wyczanski, Andrzej, “The Problem of Authority in Sixteenth Century Poland. An Essay in Reinterpretation,” in Fedorowicz, J. K. (ed. and trans.), A Republic of Nobles. Studies in Polish History to 1864 (Cambridge University Press, 1982), pp. 91–108Google Scholar
Frost, Robert I., After the Deluge. Poland–Lithuania and the Second Northern War 1655–1660 (Cambridge University Press, 1993)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lukowski, Jerzy, Liberty’s Folly. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the Eighteenth Century (London: Routledge, 1991), esp. pp. 9–25Google Scholar
Blues, Almut, “The Formation of the Polish–Lithuanian Monarchy in the Sixteenth Century,” in Butterwick, Richard (ed.), The Polish–Lithuanian Monarchy in European Context c. 1500–1795 (New York: Palgrave, 2001), pp. 63–67Google Scholar
Dembkowski, Harry E., The Union of Lublin. Polish Federalism in the Golden Age (Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, 1982), pp. 213–20Google Scholar
Davies, , “The Military Tradition of the Polish Szlachta, 1700–1864,” in Király, Béla and Rothenberg, Gunther E. (eds.), War and Society in East Central Europe, vol. I: Special Topics and Generalizations on the 18th and 19th Centuries (New York: Brooklyn College Press, 1979), pp. 41–44Google Scholar
Kann, Robert A., “The Dynasty and the Imperial Idea,” in Dynasty, Politics and Culture. Selected Essays (Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, 1991), p. 50Google Scholar
Ingrao, Charles W., The Habsburg Monarchy, 1618–1825 (Cambridge University Press, 1994), p. 21Google Scholar
Evans, R. J. W., “Introduction,” in Ingrao, Charles (ed.), State and Society in Early Modern Austria (West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 1994), Pt. 1, p. 3Google Scholar
Roider, Karl A., The Reluctant Ally. Austria’s Policy in the Austro-Turkish War, 1737–1739 (Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1972)Google Scholar
Mears, John A., “The Thirty Years War and the Origins of a Standing Army in the Habsburg Monarchy,” Central European History 21 (1988): 125–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barker, Thomas M., “Absolutism and Military Entrepreneurship. Habsburg Models,” in Army, Aristocracy, Monarchy. Essays on War, Society and Government in Austria, 1618–1780 (New York: Social Science Monographs, 1982), pp. 14–17Google Scholar
Redlich, Fritz, “The German Military Enterprise and Work Force,” Vierteljahrsschrift für Sozial-und-Weltgeschichte 47 (1964)Google Scholar
Gat, Azar, The Origins of Military Thought from the Enlightenment to Clausewitz (Oxford University Press, 1989), pp. 13–24Google Scholar
McKay, Derek, Prince Eugène of Savoy (London: Thames & Hudson, 1977)Google Scholar
Berenger, Jean, Léopold Ier (1640–1705). Fondateur de la puissance autrichienne (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 2004)Google Scholar
Duffy, Christopher, The Army of Maria Theresa. The Armed Forces of Imperial Austria, 1740–1780 (North Pomfret, VT: David Charles, 1977), pp. 43Google Scholar
Freudenberger, Herman, “Introduction,” in Ingrao, Charles (ed.), State and Society in Early Modern Austria (West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 1994), Pt. 3, pp. 141–45Google Scholar
Dickson, P. G. M., Finance and Government under Maria Theresa, 1740–1780, 2 vols. (Oxford University Press, 1987), vol. II, p. 117Google Scholar
Allmayer-Beck, J. C., “Das Heerwesen unter Joseph II,” in Gutkas, Karl (ed.), Österreich zur Zeit Kaiser Josephs II. Mitregent Kaiserin Maria Theresias, Kaiser und Landesfürst (Vienna: Niederösterreichische Landesausstellung, 1980), pp. 42–43Google Scholar
Rothenberg, Gunther E., “Archduke Charles and the ‘New’ Army,” in Király, Béla and Nofi, Albert (eds.), East Central War Leaders. Civilian and Military (Boulder, CO: Atlantic Research and Publishing, 1988), pp. 187–95Google Scholar
Sked, Alan, The Survival of the Habsburg Monarchy. Radetzky, the Imperial Army and the Class War, 1848 (London: Longman, 1979), p. 49Google Scholar
Rothenberg, Gunther E., “The Habsburg Army and the Nationality Problem in the Nineteenth Century, 1815–1914,” Austrian History Yearbook 3(1) (1967): 71–73CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sondhaus, Lawrence, In the Service of the Emperor. Italians in the Austrian Armed Forces, 1814–1918 (Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, 1990), p. 42Google Scholar
Deak, István, The Lawful Revolution. Louis Kossuth and the Hungarians, 1848–1849 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1979)Google Scholar
Péter, László, “Old Hats and Closet Revisionists. Reflections on Domokos Kosáry’s Latest Work on the 1848 Hungarian Revolution,” Slavic and East European Review 80(2) (April 2002): 296–319Google Scholar
Kontler, László, Millennium in Central Europe. A History of Hungary (Budapest: Atlantisz, 1999), pp. 251Google Scholar
Deak, István, Beyond Nationalism. A Social and Political History of the Habsburg Officer Corps, 1848–1918 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 55Google Scholar
Lackey, Scott W., The Rebirth of the Habsburg Army. Friedrich Beck and the Rise of the General Staff (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1995)Google Scholar
Hajdu, Tibor, Tisztikar és középosztály 1850–1914. Ferenc József Magyar tisztjei (Budapest: MTA Történettudományi Intézet, 1999)Google Scholar
Romsics, Gergely, Myth and Remembrance. The Dissolution of the Habsburg Empire in the Memoir Literature of the Austro-Hungarian Political Elite (Boulder, CO: Social Science Monographs, 2006), p. 216Google Scholar
Hanák, Péter, “Hungary in the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy: Preponderancy or Dependency?” in Austrian History Yearbook 3(1) (1967): 296–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Unowsky, Daniel L., The Pomp and Politics of Patriotism. Imperial Celebrations in Habsburg Austria, 1848–1916 (West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 2005), pp. 97–104Google Scholar
Hämmerle, Christa, “Die Allgemeine Wehrpflicht in der multiethnischen Armee der Habsburgermonarchie,” Journal of Modern European History 5(2) (September 2007): 227–35CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herwig, Holger H., The First World War. Germany and Austria-Hungary, 1914–1918 (London: Arnold, 1997), pp. 12–13Google Scholar
Zeman, Z. A. B., The Breakup of the Habsburg Empire, 1914–1918. A Study in National and Social Revolution (Oxford University Press, 1962), pp. 134–35Google Scholar
Evans, R. J. W., “The Habsburg Monarchy and Bohemia,” in Austria, Hungary and the Habsburgs. Essays on Central Europe, c. 1683–1867 (Oxford University Press, 2006), pp. 94–97Google Scholar
Heindl, Waltraud, “Bureaucracy, Officials, and the State in the Austrian Monarchy. Stages of Change since the Eighteenth Century,” Austrian History Yearbook 37 (2006): 35–57CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hanisch, E., Österreichische Geschichte, 1890–1990. Der lange Schatten des Staates: Östereichische Gesellschaftsgeschichte im zwanzigsten Jahrhundert (Vienna: Uberreuter, 1994), pp. 30–41Google Scholar
Heindl, Waltraud, “Beamtenum, Elitenbildung und Wissenschaftspolitik im Vormärz,” in Schedl, Hanna (ed.), Vormärz. Wendepunkt und Herausforderung (Vienna: Chölzl, 1983), pp. 56–60Google Scholar
Heindl, Waltraud, Gehorsame Rebellen. Bürokratie und Beamte in Österreich 1780 bis 1848 (Vienna: Böhlau, 1991), pp. 84–87Google Scholar
Boyer, J. W., “Freud, Marriage and Late Viennese Liberalism. A Commentary from 1905,” Journal of Modern History 2 (March 1978): 72–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Balázs, Éva H., Hungary and the Habsburgs, 1765–1800 (Budapest: CEU Press, 1997), pp. 100–15Google Scholar
Marczali, Henrik, Magyarország története II. József korában (Budapest: Pfeifer F. Kiadása, 1885–1888), vol. II, p. 364Google Scholar
Haselsteiner, Horst, “Cooperation and Confrontation between Rulers and the Noble Estates, 1711–1790,” in Sugar, Peter, Hanák, Péter, and Frank, Tibor (eds.), A History of Hungary (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1994), pp. 149–51Google Scholar
Wangermann, Ernst, From Joseph II to the Jacobin Trials. Government Policy and Public Opinion in the Habsburg Dominions in the Period of the French Revolution (Oxford University Press, 1959), p. 138Google Scholar
Sked, Alan, Metternich and Austria. An Evaluation (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), pp. 107–19Google Scholar
Barany, George, Stephen Széchenyi and the Awakening of Hungarian Nationalism, 1791–1841 (Princeton University Press, 1968), p. 223Google Scholar
Barany, George, “The Széchenyi Problem,” Journal of Central European Affairs, 20 (1960): 258Google Scholar
Eisenmann, Louis, Le compromis austro-hongrois de 1867. Étude sur le Dualisme (Paris: Société nouvelle librairie et d’édition, 1904)Google Scholar
Péter, Lázsló, “The Dualist Character of the 1867 Hungarian Settlement,” in Ránki, György (ed.), Hungarian History–World History (Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1984), pp. 85–164Google Scholar
Gerö, András, Emperor Francis Joseph, King of the Hungarians (Wayne, NJ: Center for Hungarian Studies and Publications, 2001), p. 167Google Scholar
Barany, George, “Hungary. The Uncompromising Compromise,” Austrian History Yearbook 2 (1966): 234Google Scholar
Rudnytsky, Ivan, “The Ukrainians in Galicia under Austrian Rule,” in Markovits, Andrei S. and Sysyn, Frank (eds.), Nation Building and the Politics of Nationalism. Essays on Austrian Galicia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982), pp. 24–69Google Scholar
Wolff, Larry, The Idea of Galicia. History and Fantasy in Habsburg Political Culture (Stanford University Press, 2010), pp. 14–19Google Scholar
Kozik, Jan, The Ukrainian National Movement in Galicia, 1815–1849 (Edmonton: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, University of Alberta, 1986), p. 162Google Scholar
Himka, John Paul, Religion and Nationality in Western Ukraine. The Greek Catholic Church and the Ruthenian National Movement in Galicia, 1867–1900 (Montreal: McGill and Queens University Press, 1999), pp. 6–8, 11Google Scholar
Goriely, Benjamin, “Poland in 1848,” in Fejto, Francois, The Opening of an Era. 1848 (New York: Grosset & Dunlop, 1948), pp. 372–75Google Scholar
Shedel, James, “Austria and its Polish Subjects, 1866–1914. A Relationship of Interests,” Austrian History Yearbook 19/20(2) (1983/4): 23–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, G. B., Education and Middle Class Society in Imperial Austria, 1848–1918 (West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 1996), pp. 108–26Google Scholar
Wortman, Richard, “Moscow and Petersburg. The Problem of Imperial Center in Tsarist Russia, 1881–1914,” in Wilentz, Sean (ed.), Rites of Power. Symbolism, Ritual and Politics Since the Middle Ages (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1985), pp. 244–71Google Scholar
Cracraft, James, The Petrine Revolution in Russian Architecture (University of Chicago Press, 1988)Google Scholar
Hellie, Richard, “The Petrine Army. Continuity, Change and Impact,” Canadian–American Slavic Studies 8(2) (Summer 1974): 237–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hellie, Richard, “Warfare, Changing Military Technology and the Evolution of Muscovite Society,” in Lynn, John A. (ed.), Tools of War. Instruments, Ideas and Institutions of Warfare (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1990), pp. 74–99Google Scholar
Poe, Marshall, “The Consequences of the Military Revolution in Muscovy. A Comparative Perspective,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 38(4) (October 1996): 603–18CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keep, John L. H., The Soldiers of the Tsar. Army and Society in Russia, 1462–1874 (Oxford University Press, 1985), pp. 96Google Scholar
Beyrau, Dietrich, Militär und Gesellschaft im vorrevolutsionären Russland (Cologne: Böhlau, 1984), pp. 190–93Google Scholar
Wirtshafter, Elise Kimerling, From Serf to Russian Soldier (Princeton University Press, 1990)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bushnell, John, “Peasants in Uniform. The Tsarist Army as a Peasant Society,” Journal of Social History 13 (1979/80): 565–76CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pintner, Walter M., “Russia’s Military Style, Russian Society, and Russian Power in the Eighteenth Century,” in Cross, A. G. (ed.), Russia and the West in the Eighteenth Century (Newtonville, MA: Oriental Research Partners, 1983), p. 265Google Scholar
Hellie, Richard, The Economy and Material Culture of Russia, 1600–1725 (University of Chicago Press, 1999), p. 536Google Scholar
Keep, John L. H., “The Origins of Russian Militarism,” Cahiers du monde russe et soviétiques 26 (1985): 5–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fuller, Jr. William C., Civil–Military Conflict in Imperial Russia, 1881–1914 (Princeton University Press, 1985)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hartley, Janet M., Russia, 1762–1825. Military Power, the State, and the People (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2008), pp. 4–5Google Scholar
Kahan, Arcadius, The Plow, the Hammer and the Knout. An Economic History of Eighteenth Century Russia (University of Chicago Press, 1985), pp. 96–99Google Scholar
Duffy, Christopher, Russia’s Military Way to the West. Origins and Nature of Russian Military Power 1700–1800 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1981)Google Scholar
Beskrovnyi, L. G., “Voennye shkoly v pervoi polovine XVIII v.,” Istoricheskie zapiski 42 (1953): 285–300Google Scholar
Okenfuss, Max J., “Education and Empire. School Reform in Enlightened Russia,” Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 27 (1979): 59Google Scholar
Raeff, Marc, “L’état, le gouvernement et la tradition politique en Russie impériale avant 1861,” Revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine 9 (October–December 1962): 302CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raeff, Marc, The Origins of the Russian Intelligentsia. The Eighteenth Century Nobility (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1966), pp. 48–50Google Scholar
Lotman, Iurii, “Dekabrist v poslevoenoi zhizni: bytovoe povedenie kak istoriko-psikhologicheskaia kategoriia,” in Bazonov, V. G. and Vatsuro, V. E. (eds.), Literaturnye nasledie dekabristov (Leningrad: Nauka, 1975), pp. 25–74Google Scholar
“Ob opastnosti v 1856 g. voennykh deistvii,” Istoricheskii arkhiv 1 (January–February 1959): 206–8
Rieber, Alfred J. (ed.), The Politics of Autocracy. Letters of Alexander II to Prince A. I. Bariatinski, 1857–1864 (Paris: Mouton, 1966), pp. 23–40, 59–60
Rieber, Alfred J., “Alexander II. A Revisionist View,” Journal of Modern History 43(1) (March 1971): 42–58CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zaionchkovskii, P. A., Voennye reformy 1860–1870 gg. v Rossii (Moscow: Izd. Moskovskogo universiteta, 1952)Google Scholar
Miller, Forrestt A., Dimitri Miliutin and the Reform Era in Russia (Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 1968)Google Scholar
Velychenko, Stephen, “The Size of the Imperial Russian Bureaucracy and Army in Comparative Perspective,” Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 49(3) (2001): 357–59Google Scholar
Sanborn, Joshua A., Drafting the Russian Nation. Military Conscription, Total War and Mass Politics (DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 2003)Google Scholar
Katkov, George, Russia, 1917. The February Revolution (New York: Harper & Row, 1967), pp. 306–58Google Scholar
Hasegawa, Tsuyoshi, The February Revolution. Petrograd, 1917 (Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 1981), pp. 487–507Google Scholar
Raeff, Marc, The Well-Ordered Police State. Social and Institutional Change through Law in the Germanies and Russia, 1600–1800 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1983), esp. pp. 181–218Google Scholar
Anisimov, E. V., The Reforms of Peter the Great. Progress through Coercion in Russia, trans. and introduction Alexander, John T. (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1993), pp. 217–43Google Scholar
Anan’ich, B. V. et al. (eds.), Vlast’ i reformy ot samoderzhavnoi k sovetskoi Rossii (St. Petersburg: Dmitrii Bulanin, 1996), pp. 120–51
Cherkesov, V. V. et al. (eds.), Institut general-gubernatorstva i namestnichestva v Rossiiskoi imperii (St. Petersburg: Izd. St. Peterburgskogo Universiteta, 2001), pp. 11–16
Miliukov, Paul, Khozaistvo Rossii v pervoi chetverti XVIII stoletiia i reforma Petra Velikogo (St. Petersburg: M. M. Stasiulevich, 1905)Google Scholar
Plavsic, B., “Seventeenth Century Chanceries and their Staffs,” in Pintner, W. M. and Rowney, D. K. (eds.), Russian Officialdom. The Bureaucratization of Russian History from the Seventeenth to the Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1980), pp. 19–45Google Scholar
Kollmann, Nancy S., Kinship and Politics. The Making of the Muscovite Political System, 1345–1547 (Stanford University Press, 1987), pp. 14–19Google Scholar
Bushkovich, Paul, Peter the Great. The Struggle for Power, 1671–1725 (Cambridge University Press, 2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yaney, George, The Systematization of Russian Government. Social Evolution in the Domestic Administration of Imperial Russia, 1711–1905 (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1973)Google Scholar
Jones, Robert E., The Emancipation of the Russian Nobility, 1762–85 (Princeton University Press, 1973)Google Scholar
Starr, S. Frederick, Decentralization and Self-Government in Russia, 1830–1870 (Princeton University Press, 1972)Google Scholar
LeDonne, John P., Ruling Russia. Politics and Administration in the Age of Absolutism, 1762–1796 (Princeton University Press, 1984), pp. 4–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ransel, David, The Politics of Catherinian Russia. The Panin Party (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1975)Google Scholar
Raeff, Marc, “Uniformity, Diversity and the Imperial Administration in the Reign of Catherine I,” Osteuropa in Geschichte und Gegenwart, Festschrift für Gunther Stokl zum 60. Geburtstag (Cologne: Böhlau, 1977), pp. 97–113;Google Scholar
de Madariaga, Isabel, Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1981), pp. 308–24Google Scholar
Kohut, Zenon, Russian Centralism and Ukrainian Autonomy. Imperial Absorption in the Hetmanate, 1760s–1830s (Cambridge University Press, 1988)Google Scholar
Jones, Robert E., “Runaway Peasants and Russian Motives for the Partitions of Poland,” in Ragsdale, Hugh (ed.), Imperial Russian Foreign Policy (Washington and Cambridge: Woodrow Wilson Center and Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 103–16Google Scholar
LeDonne, John, “Frontier Governors General, 1772–1825,” Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas, New Series, 1 (1999): 56–81Google Scholar
LeDonne, John, “Russian Governors General 1775–1825. Territorial or Functional Administration?” Cahiers du monde russe 42(1) (2001): 5–30Google Scholar
Dolbilov, M. D., “Rozhdenie imperatoskikh reshenii. Monarkh, sovetnik i ‘Vysochaishaia Volia’ v Rossii XIX v.,” Istoricheskie zapiski 9(127) (2006): 5–48Google Scholar
Kobeko, Dmitri, Imperatorskii Tsarskosel’skii Litsei. Nastavniki i potomtsy, 1811–1843 (St. Petersburg: Tip. V. Ḟ. Kirshbauma, 1911), pp. 71–72Google Scholar
Lincoln, Bruce, In the Vanguard of Reform. Russia’s Enlightened Bureaucrats, 1825–1861 (De Kalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 1982)Google Scholar
Rieber, Alfred J., “Interest Group Politics in the Era of the Great Reforms,” in Eklof, Ben et al. (eds.), Russia’s Great Reforms (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1994), pp. 58–83Google Scholar
Anan’ich, B. V. and Ganelin, R. Sh., Sergei Iul’evich Vitte i ego vremia (St. Petersburg: Dmitrii Bulanin, 1999), p. 572Google Scholar
Macey, D. A. J., Government and Peasant in Russia, 1861–1906. The Prehistory of the Stolypin Reforms (De Kalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 1987), pp. 44–68Google Scholar
Lieven, Dominic, Russia’s Rulers under the Old Regime (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987)Google Scholar
Verner, Andrew M., The Crisis of Russian Autocracy. Nicholas II and the 1905 Revolution (Princeton University Press, 1990), pp. 52–55Google Scholar
Remnev, A. V., Samoderzhavnoe pravitel’stvo. Komitet ministrov v sisteme vysshego upravleniia Rossiiskoi imperii (vtoraia polovina XIX–nachalo XX veka) (Moscow: Rosspen, 2010)Google Scholar
Dobilov, Mikhail, “The Political Mythology of Autocracy. Scenarios of Power and the Role of the Autocrat,” Kritika 2(4) (Fall 2001): 773–95CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rieber, Alfred J., “Patronage and Professionalism. The Witte System,” in Anan’ich, B. V. et al. (eds.), Problemy vsemirnoi istorii. Sbornik statei v chest’ Aleksandra Aleksandrovicha Fursenko (St. Petersburg: Dmitrii Bulanin, 2000), pp. 286–97Google Scholar
McDonald, David M., “United Government and the Crisis of Autocracy, 1905–1914,” in Taranovskii, Theodore (ed.), Reform in Modern Russian History. Progress or Cycle? (Washington, DC and Cambridge: Woodrow Wilson Center Press and Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 208–12Google Scholar
Lukoianov, Igor V., “The Bezobrazovtsy,” in Steinberg, John W. et al. (eds.), The Russia Japanese War in Global Perspective. World War Zero (Leiden: Brill, 2005), pp. 78–83Google Scholar
“Iz dnevnika A. A. Polovtsov,” Krasnyi arkhiv 3 (1923): 99
Lieven, Dominic, Nicholas II. Emperor of All the Russias (London: BCA, 1994), p. 109Google Scholar
Rowney, Don Karl, “Structure, Class and Career. The Problem of Bureaucracy and Society in Russia, 1801–1917,” Social Science History 6(1) (Winter 1982): 87–109CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rieber, Alfred J., “Bureaucratic Politics in Imperial Russia,” Social Science History 2 (Summer 1978): 399–413CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Orlovsky, Daniel, The Limits of Reform. The Ministry of Internal Affairs in Imperial Russia, 1802–1881 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cherukha, Valentina G. and Anan’ich, Boris V., “Russia Falls Back, Russia Catches Up. Three Generations of Russian Reformers,” in Taranovskii, (ed.), Reform in Modern Russian History, pp. 55–96;
Zutis, Ia. Ia., Politika tsarizma v Pribaltike v pervoi polovine XVIII v. (Moscow: Gosudarstvenoe sotsial’no-ekonomicheskoe izd., 1937), p. 18Google Scholar
Scharf, Claus, Katharina II, Deutschland und die deutschen (Mainz: Philip von Zabern, 1995), pp. 167–77Google Scholar
Thaden, Edward C., Russia’s Western Borderlands, 1710–1870 (Princeton University Press, 1984), pp. 98–99Google Scholar
Bakhturnina, A. Iu., Okrainy rossiiskoi imperiii. Gosudarstvennoe upravlenie i natsional’naia politika v gody pervoi mirovoi voiny (1914–1917 gg.) (Moscow: Rosspen, 2004), pp. 226–27Google Scholar
Raeff, Marc, Michael Speransky. Statesman of Imperial Russia, 1772–1839, 2nd edn. (The Hague: Mouton, 1969), pp. 71–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taki, Victor, “Between Politzeistaat and Cordon Sanitaire. Epidemics and Police Reform during the Russian Occupation of Moldavia and Wallachia, 1828–1834,” Ab Imperio 4 (2008): 82–89Google Scholar
Rhinelander, Anthony, Prince Michael Vorontsov, Viceroy to the Tsar (Montreal: McGill and Queens University Press, 1990), pp. 67–93Google Scholar
Zablotskii-Desiatovskii, A. P., Graf P. D. Kiselev i ego vremia. Materialy dlia istorii imperatorov Aleksandra I, Nikolaia I, Aleksandra II, 4 vols. (St. Petersburg: M. M. Stasiulevich, 1882), vol. I, pp. 348–57Google Scholar
Druzhinin, N. M., Gosudarstvennye krest’iane i reformy, 2 vols. (Moscow: Izd. Akademiia nauka SSSR, 1946), vol. I, pp. 257–63Google Scholar
Bitis, Alexander, Russia and the Eastern Question. Army, Government and Society, 1815–1833 (Oxford University Press, 2006)Google Scholar
Shil’der, N. S., Imperator Aleksandr Pervyi. Ego zhizn’ i tsarstvovanie, 4 vols., 2nd edn (St. Petersburg: A. S. Suvorin, 1905), vol. IV, pp. 86–87Google Scholar
Jedlicki, Jerzy, A Suburb of Europe. Nineteenth-Century Polish Approaches to Western Civilization (Budapest: CEU Press, 1999), p. 16Google Scholar
Davies, Norman, God’s Playground. A History of Poland, vol. I: The Origins to 1795 (Oxford University Press, 1981), pp. 30–60Google Scholar
Wandycz, Piotr, The Lands of Partitioned Poland, 1795–1918 (Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 1974), pp. 28–33Google Scholar
Stanislavskaia, A. M., Russko-angliskie otnosheniia i problemy sredizemnomor’ia, 1798–1807 (Moscow: Izd. Akademiia nauka SSSR, 1962), pp. 335–38Google Scholar
Kukiel, Marian, Czartoryski and the Unity of Europe, 1770–1861 (Princeton University Press, 1955)Google Scholar
Grimstead, Patricia, The Foreign Ministers of Alexander I (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1969)Google Scholar
Thackeray, Frank W., Antecedents of Revolution. Alexander I and the Polish Kingdom, 1815–1825 (Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, 1980), pp. 40–41Google Scholar
Brokgaus, F. A. and Efron, I. A. (eds.), Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’ (St. Petersburg: I. A. Efron, 1898), vol. XXXXVIII, p. 739
Roseveare, Irena, “Wielopolski’s Reforms and their Failure before the Uprising of 1867,” Antemurale, 15 (Rome 1971): 114–15Google Scholar
Edlicki, Jerzy, “Industrial State Economy of Poland in the 19th Century,” Acta Poloniae Historica 18 (1968): 221–37Google Scholar
Gasiorowska, Natalia, “Les origines de la grande industrie polonaise au XIX siècle,” in La Pologne au VIe Congrès Internationale des Sciences Historiques (Warsaw: Société polonaise d’histoire, 1930)Google Scholar
Rieber, Alfred J., Merchants and Entrepreneurs in Imperial Russia (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1982), pp. 62–65Google Scholar
Bezborodko, to Vorontsov, , 2/13 July 1798, Arkhiv kniazia Vorontsova, 40 vols. (Moscow: A. I. Mamontova, 1870–1895), vol. XIII, p. 401Google Scholar
“Imperator Nikolai I i Pol’sha v 1825–1831 gg.,” ed. Shilder, N. K., Russkaia starina 101 (1900): 302
Leslie, R. F., “Polish Political Divisions and the Struggle for Power at the Beginning of the Insurrection of November 1830,” Slavonic and East European Review 31(76) (December 1952): 113–32Google Scholar
Beauvois, Daniel, Le noble, le serf et le révizor (Paris: Éditions archives contemporaines, 1984), p. 262Google Scholar
Flynn, James T., “Uvarov and the ‘Western Provinces.’ A Study of Russia’s Polish Problem,” Slavic and East European Review 64(2) (April 1986): 212–36Google Scholar
Leslie, R. F., Reform and Insurrection in Russian Poland, 1856–1865 (London: Athlone Press, 1963), pp. 49–50Google Scholar
Vospominaniia generala-fel’dmarshala grafa Dmitriia Aleksandrovicha Miliutina 1860–1862, introduction Zakharova, L. G. (Moscow: Studiia TRITE, RIO Rossiiskii arkhiv, 1999), pp. 81–110, 175Google Scholar
“Perepiska Imperatora Aleksandra II-go s velikim kniazem Konstantinom Nikolaevichem za vremia prebyvaniia ego v dolzhnosti Namestnika Tsarstva Pol’skogo v 1862–1863 gg.,” ed. Sivers, A. A., Dela i Dni 1 (1920): 123–24 (italics in original)
Walicki, Andrzej, “Alexander Herzen’s ‘Russian Socialism’ as a Response to Polish Revolutionary Slavophilism,” in Russia, Poland and Universal Regeneration. Studies in Russian and Polish Thought of the Romantic Epoch (South Bend, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1991), pp. 1–72Google Scholar
Dnevnik D. A. Miliutina, 1873–1875, ed. Zaionchkovskii, P. A. (Moscow: Biblioteka imeni V. I. Lenina, 1947), pp. 6–8
Dnevnik P. A. Valueva Ministra Vnutrennikh Del, 1861–1864, ed. Zaionchkovskii, P. A. (Moscow: Izd. Akademiia nauk SSSR, 1961), vol. I, pp. 23
Gorizontov, L. E., Paradoksy imperskoi politiki. Poliaki v Rossii i russkie v Pol’she (Moscow: Indrik, 1999), p. 63Google Scholar
Dabrowski, Patrice M., “Russian–Polish Relations Revisited, or the ABC’s of ‘Treason’ under Tsarist Rule,” Kritika 4(1) (Winter 2003): 177–99CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Staliūnas, Darius, “Between Russfication and Divide and Rule. Russian Nationality Policy in the Western Borderlands in mid-19th Century,” Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas, New series, 55(3) (2007): 357–73Google Scholar
Staliūnas, Darius, Making Russians. Meaning and Practices of Russification in Lithuania and Belarus after 1863 (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2007)Google Scholar
Janowski, Maciej, Polish Liberal Thought Before 1918 (Budapest: CEU Press, 2004), esp. pp. 147–88Google Scholar
Klier, John Doyle, Russia Gathers Her Jews. The Origins of the “Jewish Question” in Russia, 1772–1825 (De Kalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 1986), esp. pp. 60Google Scholar
Baron, Salo W., The Russian Jew under Tsars and Soviets, 2nd edn (New York: Macmillan, 1976), pp. 18Google Scholar
Stanislawski, Michael, Tsar Nicholas I and the Jews. The Transformation of Jewish Society in Russia, 1825–1855 (Philadelphia, PA: Jewish Publications Society, 1983)Google Scholar
Löwe, Heinz-Dietrich, The Tsars and the Jews. Reform, Reaction and Anti-Semitism in Imperial Russia, 1772–1917 (Chur: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1993), p. 39Google Scholar
Weeks, Theodore R., From Assimilation to Antisemitism. The Polish Question in Poland 1850–1914 (DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 2006)Google Scholar
Polonsky, Anthony, “The New Jewish Politics and its Discontents,” in Gitelman, Zvi (ed.), Modern Jewish Politics. Bundism and Zionism in Eastern Europe (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2003), pp. 40–41Google Scholar
Bobrovnikov, B. O. and Babich, I. L. (eds.), Severny Kavkaz v sostave Rossiiskoi imperii (Moscow: Novoe literaturnoe obozrenie, 2007), pp. 189–94
Brower, Daniel, Turkestan and the Fate of the Russian Empire (London: Routledge Curzon, 2003), pp. 10–14Google Scholar
Kafadar, Cemal, Between Two Worlds. The Construction of the Ottoman State (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1995), p. 143Google Scholar
Inalcik, Halil, The Ottoman State, Economy and Society, 1300–1600 (Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 305–7Google Scholar
Kunt, I. Metin, The Sultan’s Servants. The Transformation of Ottoman Provincial Government (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983), pp. 7, 32Google Scholar
Shaw, Stanford, “The Ottoman View of the Balkans,” in Jelavich, Charles and Jelavich, Barbara (eds.), The Balkans in Transition. Essays in the Development of Balkan Life and Politics Since the Eighteenth Century (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1963), pp. 69–70Google Scholar
Fleischer, C., Bureaucrat and Intellectual in the Ottoman Empire (Princeton University Press, 1986)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hourani, Albert, A History of the Arab Peoples (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991), pp. 214–22Google Scholar
Imber, Colin, The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650. The Structure of Power, 2nd edn (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), pp. 252–86Google Scholar
Inalcik, Halil, The Ottoman Empire. The Classic Age, 1300–1600 (London: Phoenix, 1994), pp. 7–8Google Scholar
Masters, Bruce, Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Arab World (Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 61Google Scholar
Shaw, Stanford, History of the Ottoman Empire and Turkey, vol. I: Empire of the Gazis. The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire, 1280–1808, 2 vols. (Cambridge University Press, 1976), p. 280CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Şahin, Ilhan, Emecen, Feridun M., and Halaçoğlu, Yusuf, “Turkish Settlements in Rumelia (Bulgaria) in the 15th and 16th Centuries. Town and Village Population,” International Journal of Turkish Studies 4(2) (Fall/Winter 1989): 23–37Google Scholar
Faroqui, Suraiya, Making a Living in the Ottoman Lands, 1480–1820 (Istanbul: Isis, 1995), pp. 275–90Google Scholar
Inalcik, Halil, “The Ottoman Economic Mind and Aspects of the Ottoman Economy,” in Cook, M. A. (ed.), Studies in the Economic History of the Middle East from the Rise of Islam to the Present Day (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), pp. 207–18Google Scholar
Veinstein, Gilles, “La voix du mâitre à travers les firmans de Soliman le Magnifique,” in Soliman le Magnifique et son temps (Paris: La documentation française, 1992), pp. 127–44Google Scholar
Inalcik, Halil, “Decision Making in the Ottoman State,” in Farah, C. E. (ed.), Decision Making and Change in the Ottoman Empire (Kirksville, MO: Thomas Jefferson University Press, 1993), pp. 9–18Google Scholar
Mardin, Serif, “Power, Civil Society and Culture in the Ottoman Empire,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 11 (1969): 258–81CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finkel, Caroline, The Administration of Warfare. The Ottoman Military Campaigns in Hungary, 1593–1606 (Vienna: VWGÖ, 1988), pp. 30Google Scholar
Aksan, Virginia, An Ottoman Statesman in War and Peace. Ahmed Resmi Efendi, 1700–1783 (Leiden: Brill, 1995), p. xiGoogle Scholar
Pamuk, Şevket, “Institutional Change and the Longevity of the Ottoman Empire, 1500–1800,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 35(2) (Autumn 2004): 225–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murphey, Rhoads, “Review Article: Mustafa Ali and the Politics of Cultural Despair,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 21(2) (1989): 243–45CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fleischer, Cornell H., “Response to Rhoads Murphey’s ‘Review Article’ of Bureaucrat and Intellectual in the Ottoman Empire. The Historian Mustafa Ali, 1541–1600,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 22 (1990): 127–28CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Howard, A., “Genre and Myth in the Ottoman Advice for Kings Literature,” in Aksan, Virginia H. and Goffman, Daniel (eds.), The Early Modern Ottomans (Cambridge University Press, 2007), pp. 137–66Google Scholar
Al-Azmeh, Aziz, Muslim Kingship. Power and the Sacred in Muslim, Christian and Pagan Polities (London: Tauris, 1997)Google Scholar
Braudel, Fernand, Civilization and Capitalism, 15th–18th Century, vol. III: The Perspective of the World (New York: Harper & Row, 1984), p. 482Google Scholar
Hourani, Albert, “Ottoman Reform and the Politics of Notables,” in Polk, W. R. and Chambers, R. L. (eds.), Beginning of Modernization in the Middle East (University of Chicago Press, 1968)Google Scholar
Owen, Roger, “Introduction,” in Naff, Thomas and Owen, Roger (eds.), Studies in Eighteenth Century Islamic History (Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 1977), Pt. II, pp. 133–51Google Scholar
Darling, Linda, Revenue-Raising and Legitimacy. Tax Collection and Finance Administration in the Ottoman Empire, 1560–1660 (Leiden: Brill, 1996)Google Scholar
Khoury, Dina Rizk, State and Provincial Society in the Ottoman Empire. Mosul, 1540–1834 (Cambridge University Press, 1997)Google Scholar
Inalcik, Halil, “The Ottoman Decline and Its Effects upon the Reaya,” Actes du IIe congrès internationale des études de sud-est européen (Athens: n.p., 1978), vol. III (Histoire), pp. 73–90.Google Scholar
Findley, Carter Vaughn, “Political Culture and the Great Households,” in Faroqui, Suraiya N. (ed.), The Cambridge History of Turkey. The Later Ottoman Empire 1603–1839 (Cambridge University Press, 2006), vol. III, pp. 66–68Google Scholar
Hathaway, Jane, The Politics of Households in Ottoman Egypt. The Rise of the Qazdağlıs (Cambridge University Press, 1997)Google Scholar
Inalcik, Halil, “Bursa and the Commerce of the Levant,” Journal of Economic and Social History of the Orient 3(2) (1960): 131–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mantran, Robert, “L’empire Ottoman et le commerce asiatique au XVIe et au XVIIe siècle,” in Richards, D. S. (ed.), Islam and the Trade of Asia (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1970), pp. 169–80Google Scholar
Inalcik, Halil, “Capital Formation in the Ottoman Empire,” Journal of Economic History 29(1) (March 1969): 97–140CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis, Bernard, “Some Reflections on the Decline of the Ottoman Empire,” Studia Islamica 9 (1958): 111–27CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis, Bernard, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (London: Oxford University Press, 1961)Google Scholar
Fodor, Pál, “Volunteers in the Ottoman Army,” in Dávid, Géza and Fodor, Pál (eds.), Ottomans, Hungarians and Habsburgs in Central Europe. The Military Confines in the Era of Ottoman Conquest (Leiden: Brill, 2000), pp. 229–55Google Scholar
Cvetkova, Bistra, “Mouvements antiféodaux dans les terres bulgares sous domination ottomane du XVIe au XVIIIe siècle,” Études historiques à l’occasion du XIIe congrès internationale des sciences historiques, Vienne, August/September 1965, vol. II, p. 153Google Scholar
Barkey, Karen, Bandits and Bureaucrats. The Ottoman Route to State Centralization (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994)Google Scholar
Barkey, Karen, “In Different Times. Scheduling and Control in the Ottoman Empire, 1550–1659,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 38 (1996): 460–83CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adanir, Fikret, “Heiduckentum und Osmanische Herrschaft. Sozialgeschichtliche Aspekte der Diskussinon um das früneuzeitliche Räuberwesen in Südosteuropa,” Südost-Forschungen 41 (1982): 43–116Google Scholar
McGowan, Bruce, “The Age of the Ayans,” in Inalcik, Halil and Quataert, Donald (eds.), An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, vol. 1: 1600–1914 (Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 661–63Google Scholar
Abou-El-Haj, Rifaat Ali, Formation of the Modern State. The Ottoman Empire, Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1991), pp. 18–52Google Scholar
Salzmann, Ariel, Tocqueville in the Ottoman Empire (Leiden: Brill, 2007), pp. 105–10Google Scholar
Philliou, Christine M., Biography of an Empire. Governing Ottomans in an Age of Revolution (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2011), pp. 5–37Google Scholar
Barkey, Karen, Empire of Difference. The Ottomans in Comparative Perspective (Cambridge University Press, 2008), p. 277CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hickok, Michael R., Ottoman Military Administration in Eighteenth Century Bosnia (Leiden: Brill, 1997), p. 79Google Scholar
Kasaba, Reşet, A Moveable Empire. Ottoman Nomads, Migrants and Refugees (Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 2009), esp. pp. 85–122Google Scholar
Ágoston, Gábor, “Military Transformation in the Ottoman Empire and Russia, 1500–1800,” Kritika 12(2) (Spring 2011): 303–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Inalcik, Halil, “Military and Fiscal Transformation in the Ottoman Empire, 1600–1700,” Archivum Ottomanicum 6 (1980)Google Scholar
Petrosian, I. E., “Ianicharskie garnizony v provintsiiakh osmanskoi imperii v XVI–XVII vv.,” in Litavrin, G. G. (ed.), Osmanskaia imperiia i strany tsentral’noi, vostochnoi i iugo-vostochnoi Evropy v XVII v. Glavnye tendentsii politicheskikh zaimootnoshenii (Moscow: Pamiatniki istoricheskoi mysli, 1998)Google Scholar
Aksan, Viginia, Ottoman Wars, 1700–1870. An Empire Besieged (Edinburgh: Longman, 2007), pp. 38–40Google Scholar
Levy, Avigdor, “Military Reform and the Problem of Centralization in the Eighteenth Century,” Middle Eastern Studies 18(3) (July 1982): 229–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abou-El-Haj, Rifa’at ‘Ali, “Ottoman Attitudes towards Peace Making. The Karlowitz Case,” Der Islam 51 (1974): 131–37Google Scholar
Akgun, Secil, “European Influence on the Development of Social and Cultural Life of the Ottoman Empire in the Eighteenth Century,” Revue des études sud-est européenes 21 (1983): 92Google Scholar
Aksan, Virginia, “Breaking the Spell of the Baron de Tott. Reframing the Question of Military Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1760–1830,” International History Review 24(2) (June 2002): 258–63CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaw, J., Between Old and New. The Ottoman Empire under Sultan Selim III (1789–1807) (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973)Google Scholar
Poe, Marshall, “The Consequences of Military Revolution in Muscovy in Comparative Perspective,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 38 (1996): 603–18CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zilfi, Madeline C., “The Ottoman Ulama,” in Faroqui, Suraiya N. (ed.), The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. 3: The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839 (Cambridge University Press, 2006), pp. 223–25Google Scholar
Heyd, Uriel, “The Ottoman Ulama and Westernization at the Time of Selim III and Mahmud II,” reprinted from Studies in Islamic History and Civilization, in Scripta Hierusoly Mitana IX (Jerusalem 1961)Google Scholar
Aksan, Virginia H., “The Ottoman Military and State Transformation in a Globalizing World,” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 27(2) (2007): 257–70CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Erdem, Hakan, “Recruitment of the ‘Victorious Soldiers of Muhammad’ in the Arab Provinces, 1826–1828,” in Gershoni, Israel, Erdem, Hakan, and Wokök, Ursula (eds.), Histories of the Modern Middle East. New Directions (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2002), pp. 198–200Google Scholar
Genç, Mehemet, “L’economie ottoman et la guerre au XVIIIe siècle,” Turcica 27 (1995): 177–96CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pamuk, Şevket, “Prices in the Ottoman Empire, 1469–1914,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 36 (2004): 463Google Scholar
Levy, Avigdor, “The Officer Corps in Sultan Mahmud’s New Ottoman Army, 1826–39,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 2 (1971): 21–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zürcher, Erik Jan, “The Ottoman Conscription System, 1844–1914,” International Review of Social History 43 (1998): 436–37CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hurewitz, J. C., The Middle East and North Africa in World Politics, 2nd edn, 2 vols. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1975), vol. I, p. 270Google Scholar
Findley, Carter V., Bureaucratic Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1789–1922 (Princeton University Press, 1980), pp. 16–87Google Scholar
Findley, Carter V., “The Legacy of Tradition to Reform. Origins of the Ottoman Foreign Ministry,” International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 1 (1970): 335–38Google Scholar
Adanir, Fikret and Kaiser, Hilmar, “Migration, Deportation and Nation Building. The Case of the Ottoman Empire,” in Laboutte, René (ed.), Migration et migrants dans une perspective historique. Permanences et innovations (Bruxelles: Peter Lang, 2000), p. 277Google Scholar
Davison, Roderic H., Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856–1876 (Princeton University Press, 1963), pp. 151–58Google Scholar
Makdisi, Ussama, “Ottoman Orientalism,” American Historical Review 107(3) (June 2002): 12CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keddie, Nikki R., Sayyid Jamal al-Din ‘al-Afghani. A Political Biography (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1972)Google Scholar
Panzac, Daniel, Commerce et navigation dans l’Empire Ottoman au XVIIIe siècle (Istanbul: Isis, 1996), pp. vii–viiiGoogle Scholar
Steengaard, Neils, “The Indian Ocean Network and the Emerging World Economy c. 1500–1750,” in Chandra, Satish (ed.), The Indian Ocean. Explorations in History, Commerce and Politics (New Delhi: Sage, 1987), pp. 125–50Google Scholar
Steengaard, Neils, Carracks, Caravans and Companies. The Structural Crisis in European–Asian Trade in the Early 17th Century (Lund: Studentenliteratur, 1973)Google Scholar
Todorov, Nikolai, The Balkan City, 1400–1900 (Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 1983), pp. 59–60Google Scholar
Lapidus, Ira M., Muslim Cities in the Later Middle Ages (Cambridge University Press, 1967)Google Scholar
Faroqui, Suraiya and Veinstein, Gilles, “Introduction,” in Faroqui, Suraiya and Veinstein, Gilles (eds.), Merchants in the Ottoman Empire (Louvain: Peeters, 2008), pp. xvi–xxivGoogle Scholar
Hanioğlu, M. Şükrü, A Brief History of the Late Ottoman Empire (Princeton University Press, 2008), pp. 19–24Google Scholar
Hurewitz, J. C., Diplomacy in the Near and Middle East (Princeton University Press, 1956), vol. I, pp. 110–11Google Scholar
Clark, Edward C., “The Ottoman Industrial Revolution,” Journal of Middle East Studies 5 (1974): 65–76CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keyder, Çağlar, “Creation and Destruction of Forms of Manufacturing. The Ottoman Example,” in Batou, Jean (ed.), Between Development and Underdevelopment. The Precocious Attempts at Industrialization of the Periphery, 1800–1870 (Geneva: Droz, 1991), pp. 157–79Google Scholar
Olmstead, A. T., History of the Persian Empire (University of Chicago Press, 1948), pp. 219–24Google Scholar
Fisher, W. B., “The Land of Iran,” in The Cambridge History of Iran (Cambridge University Press, 1968), vol. 1, pp. 734–35CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frye, Richard N., The Golden Age of Persia (London: Phoenix Press, 2000), pp. 8–14Google Scholar
Aubin, Jean, “Études Safavides. I. Shah Isma’il et les notables de l’Iraq persan,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 2(1) (January 1959): 37–81Google Scholar
Aubin, Jean, “Études Safavides. III. L’avénement des Safavides reconsidéré,” Moyen Orient et Océan Indien 5 (1988): 1–30Google Scholar
Oberling, Pierre, The Qashqā’i Nomads of Fārs (The Hague: Mouton, 1974), p. 113CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Babaie, Sussan et al. (eds.), Slaves of the Shah. New Elites of Safavid Iran (London: Tauris, 2004), pp. 6–7
Lockhart, Lawrence, The Fall of the Safavid Dynasty and the Afghan Occupation of Persia (Cambridge University Press, 1958), p. 146Google Scholar
Foran, John, “The Long Fall of the Safavid Dynasty. Moving Beyond the Standard Views,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 24 (1992): 282–86Google Scholar
Krusinski, Judasz Tadeusz, The History of the Late Revolutions of Persia (London: J. Ostborne, 1740)Google Scholar
Roemer, H. R., “The Safavid Period,” in The Cambridge History of Iran (Cambridge University Press, 1986), vol. 6, p. 291Google Scholar
Tapper, Richard, Frontier Nomads of Iran. A Political and Social History of the Shahsevan (Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 144CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tapper, Richard (ed.), “Introduction,” in The Conflict of Tribe and State in Iran and Afghanistan (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1983), pp. 9–10
Reid, James J., “Rebellion and Social Change in Astarabad, 1537–1744,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 13(1) (February 1981): 47–49Google Scholar
Singh, Ganda, Ahmad Shah Durrani. Father of Modern Afghanistan (New Delhi: Asia Publishing House, 1959)Google Scholar
Arjomand, Said Amir, The Turban for the Crown. The Islamic Revolution in Iran (Oxford University Press, 1988), p. 19Google Scholar
Abrahamian, Edvard, “Oriental Despotism. The Case of Qajar Iran,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 5 (1974): 3–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Algar, Hamid, Religion and the State in Iran, 1785–1806. The Role of the Ulama in the Qajar Period (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1969)Google Scholar
del Vecchio Good, Mary Jo, “Social Hierarchy in Provincial Iran. The Case of Qajar Maragheh,” Iranian Studies 10 (1977): 129–63CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, Vanessa, The Qajar Pact. Bargaining, Protest and the State in Nineteenth Century Persia (London: Tauris, 2005), pp. 183–87Google Scholar
Farmayan, Hafez Farman, “The Forces of Modernization in Nineteenth Century Iran. A Historical Survey,” in Polk, R. (ed.), The Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle East (University of Chicago Press, 1968), pp. 121–22Google Scholar
Amanat, Abbas, Pivot of the Universe. Nasir Al-Din Shah and the Iranian Monarchy, 1831–1896 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1997)Google Scholar
Bayat, Mangol, Iran’s First Revolution. Shi’ism and the Constitutional Revolution of 1905–1909 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), pp. 36–39Google Scholar
Ringer, Monica M., Education, Religion and the Discourse of Cultural Reform in Qajar Iran (Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publications, 2001)Google Scholar
Sheikholeslami, A. Reza, The Structure of Central Authority in Qajar Iran, 1871–1896 (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1997), pp. 7–13Google Scholar
Kia, Mehdrad, “Inside the Court of Naser od-Din Shah Qajar, 1881–1896. The Life and Diary of Mohammed Hasan Khan E’temad os-Saltaneh (Iran),” Middle Eastern Studies 37(1) (January 2001), esp. pp. 101–17CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tousi, Reza Ra’iss, “The Persian Army, 1880–1907,” Middle Eastern Studies 24(2) (April 1988): 206–29CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kazemzadeh, Firouzeh, “The Origin and Early Development of the Persian Cossack Brigade,” American Slavic and East European Review 15(3) (October 1956): 351–63CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Di Cosmo, Nicola, “Qing Colonial Administration in Inner Asia,” International History Review 20(2) (June 1998): 287–309CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, Robert H. G., The Manchurian Frontier in Ch’ing History (Cambridge University Press, 1970), pp. 34–41CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elliott, Mark C., The Manchu Way. The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China (Stanford University Press, 2001), pp. 29–31, 58Google Scholar
Rawski, Evelyn S., “Presidential Address. Reenvisioning the Qing. The Significance of the Qing Period in Chinese History,” Journal of Asian Studies 55(4) (November 1996): 832CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Unger, Roberto M., Plasticity and Power. Comparative-Historical Studies on the Institutional Conditions of Economic and Military Power (Cambridge University Press, 1987), p. 59Google Scholar
Perdue, Peter C., China Marches West. The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2005), pp. 238Google Scholar
Creel, H. G., The Origins of Statecraft in China. The Western Chou Empire (University of Chicago Press, 1970)Google Scholar
Metzger, T., The Internal Organization of Ch’ing Bureaucracy. Legal, Normative and Communications Aspects (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974)Google Scholar
Elman, A., “Political, Social and Cultural Reproduction via Civil Service Examinations in Late Imperial China,” Journal of Asian Studies 50(1) (February 1991): 17–19CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wei-ming, T., “The Enlightenment Mentality and the Chinese Intellectual Dilemma,” in Lieberthal, Kenneth et al. (eds.), Perspectives on Modern China. Four Anniversaries (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1991), pp. 109–12Google Scholar
Shue, V., The Reach of the State. Sketches of the Chinese Body Politic (Stanford University Press, 1988), p. 87Google Scholar
Crossley, Pamela Kyle, A Translucent Mirror. History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1999), pp. 43–52Google Scholar
Mote, F. W., Imperial China, 900–1800 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999), pp. 489–94Google Scholar
Anthony, Robert J. and Leonard, Jane Kate (eds.), “Introduction,” Dragons, Tigers and Dogs. Qing Crisis Management and the Boundaries of State Power in Late Imperial China (Ithaca, NY: East Asian Program, Cornell University, 2002), pp. 16–19
Newby, L. J., “The Begs of Xinjiang. Between Two Worlds,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 2 (1998): 278–97CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ewing, Thomas E., Between the Hammer and the Anvil? Chinese and Russian Policies in Outer Mongolia (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1980), pp. 8–9Google Scholar
Heuschert, Dorothy, “Legal Pluralism in the Qing Empire. Manchu Legislation for the Mongols,” International History Review 20(2) (June 1998): 310–24CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wakeman, Jr. Frederic, “China and the Seventeenth Century Crisis,” Late Imperial China 7(1) (1986): 1–26CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Naquin, Susan, Millenarian Rebellion in China. The Eight Trigrams Uprising of 1813 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1976)Google Scholar
Naquin, Susan, Shantung Rebellion. The Wang Lun Uprising of 1774 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1981)Google Scholar
Spence, Jonathan, God’s Chinese Son. The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Hong Xiuquan (New York: W. W. Norton, 1996)Google Scholar
Fairbank, John K. (ed.), The Chinese World Order. Traditional China’s Foreign Relations (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1968)CrossRef
Wakeman, Jr. Frederic, Strangers at the Gate. Social Disorder in South China, 1839–1861 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1966)Google Scholar
Polacher, James M., The Inner Opium War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992)Google Scholar
Ralston, David B., Importing the European Army. The Introduction of European Military Techniques and Institutions into the Extra-European World, 1600–1914 (Chicago University Press, 1990), pp. 111–12Google Scholar
Pong, David, Shen Pao Chen and China’s Modernization in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge University Press, 1994), esp. pp. 315–37CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spence, Jonathan, The Search for Modern China, 2nd edn (New York: W. W. Norton, 1999), p. 227Google Scholar
Spence, Jonathan, The Gate of Heavenly Peace. The Chinese and their Revolution, 1895–1980 (New York: Viking Press, 1981), pp. 32–56Google Scholar
Horowitz, Richard S., “Breaking the Bonds of Precedent. The 1905–6 Government Reform Commission and the Remaking of the Qing Central State,” Modern Asian Studies 37(4) (2003): 775–97CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gabbiani, Luca, “The Xinzheng Reforms and the Transformation of the Status of Lower Level Central Administration,” Modern Asian Studies 37(4) (2003): 827–29CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Accessibility standard: Unknown

Accessibility compliance for the PDF of this book is currently unknown and may be updated in the future.

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×