Synopsis

The chapter provides an overview of diverse conceptualizations and terminologies that have been introduced to describe technology and how it evolves. First, technology is defined as consisting of both hardware and Software (the knowledge required to produce and use technological hardware). Second, the essential feature of technology – its dynamic nature – is outlined. Technologies change all the time individually, and in their aggregate, typically in a sequence of replacements of older by newer technologies. Finally, the chapter emphasizes the multitude of linkages and cross-enhancing interdependencies between technologies giving rise to successive technology “clusters”, which are the focus of the subsequent historical analysis chapters. The most essential terminology distinguishes between invention (discovery), innovation (first commercial application) and diffusion (widespread replication and growth) of technologies. As a simple conceptual model the technology life cycle is introduced. In this model, new technologies evolve from a highly uncertain embryonic stage with frequent rejection of proposed solutions. In the case of acceptance, technology diffusion follows and technologies continue to be improved, widen their possible applications, and interact with other existing technologies and infrastructures. Ultimately, improvement potentials become exhausted, negative externalities apparent, and diffusion eventually saturates, providing an opportunity window for the introduction of alternative solutions. Technology diffusion is at the core of the historical technological changes of importance for global (environmental) change. This is why the main emphasis in this book is on technology diffusion, which also provides the central metric to measure technological change.