To save content items to your account,
please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies.
If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account.
Find out more about saving content to .
To save content items to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org
is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings
on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part
of your Kindle email address below.
Find out more about saving to your Kindle.
Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations.
‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi.
‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.
The Palestinian struggle against the Israeli occupation and settler colonialism is often characterised as a struggle for ‘self-determination’ (Said, The Question of Palestine 6) where Palestine is imagined as an embodiment of a community of selves that has been erased from official narratives. Since 1948, Israel has enabled settler geopolitics that renders Palestinian existence invisible and forgotten through rhetorical and material instrumentalities. The function of Golda Meir’s statement in 1969 to the Sunday Times that ‘there is no such thing as Palestinians’ (Soussi) was not just to deny the national character of Palestinian existence, but to delegitimise the Palestinian nation-in-waiting through rhetorical acts of erasure. This ‘logic of elimination’ (Wolfe 387) has created an ‘architecture of erasure’ (Makdisi 519), which consistently tries to hide the presence of Palestinian lives from Israeli citizens and the world. While Golda Meir’s statement can be considered as a rhetorical offence, it is pertinent to note that rhetorical offences have material consequences of their own. This chapter argues that Palestinian writers contend with Israel’s rhetorical practices of erasure and colonial amnesia through self-narratives that inscribe and memorialise Palestinian existence in a literary life-world.
The Palestinian struggle has always been to determine the self: to make it visible, including to an international public, and this struggle has been reflected in Palestinian literature as well. The struggle for self-determination is not limited to political emancipation but also the creation of a new understanding of Palestinian selfhood altogether, which is undertaken by Palestinian literature through the development of a new narrative form that I would like to characterise as public confession. The development of this form can be traced through the literary works of Ghassan Kanafani’s Men in the Sun (1963), Emile Habiby’s The Secret Life of Saeed: The Pessoptimist (1974) and Mourid Barghouti’s I Saw Ramallah (1997). It can be found in its most developed form in narratives published during and after the Second Intifada (2000–5), when the representation of Palestinian selfhood to a concerned international public sphere became most crucial. This chapter focuses on the mode of public confession embedded in self-narratives (autobiographical and fictional narratives narrated in first-person) by examining Sayed Kashua’s Dancing Arabs (2004), Suad Amiry’s Sharon and My Mother-in-Law (2006) and Samir El-Youssef ’s ‘The Day the Beast Got Thirsty’ (2004).
In an interview, Canadian children’s book author Deborah Ellis has pointed out that ‘it is easy to look at the Middle East and only see a colossal mess with people firmly entrenched in their versions of the story and with powerful forces benefitting from keeping the conflict alive’ (Cat 50). Ellis’s statement draws attention to three key aspects of representing the situation in Palestine/ Israel, especially outside of the Middle East: first, the idea that it is a complex conflict (what Ellis calls a ‘colossal mess’) and second, that this is an issue that polarises people. Third, and already implicit in the previous point, is the fact that this conflict is relevant for audiences beyond the Middle East, which is partly due to the fact that it is shaped by the involvement of key international stakeholders, such as the United States and the European Union. As discussed in the introduction to this edited collection, the Palestine/ Israel conflict has long fascinated audiences outside of the region. Since the Second Palestinian Intifada, there has been a rise in young adult books from outside the Middle East that imaginatively engage with this conflict, a sample of which will be the focus of my chapter.
While young adult fiction is usually not linked with politics, at least not directly, using Elizabeth Laird’s book A Little Piece of Ground, which will be discussed later in this chapter, David Belbin has emphasised that ‘We should be proud that YA fiction acts as a home for writers with a serious moral agenda’ (140). Indeed, many people have emphasised the capacity of young adult readers to engage with complex topics. For instance, Kate Wilson, who was director of Macmillan Books when they published Laird’s A Little Piece of Ground (2003), a book that was criticised for being too one-sided in favour of the Palestinians, responded by saying that: ‘I do not think it is right to underestimate the intelligence and subtlety of young readers’ (Wilson quoted in Leibovich-Dar). This statement emphasises that young adult fiction, even though usually aimed at readers aged 12–15, should not automatically include content that is simplified or shies away from complex political matters. In many ways, young adult fiction lends itself to engaging with and representing the Palestine/Israel conflict to an audience outside of the Middle East.
From experience I can say that the language used by the citizens of a conflict to describe their situation becomes flatter and flatter as the conflict goes on, gradually evolving into a series of clichés and slogans … The process eventually seeps into the private, intimate language of the citizens (even if they vehemently deny it).
(Grossman, Writing in the Dark 61)
Despite David Grossman’s widely publicised views on the Israeli– Palestinian conflict and his ongoing critique of Israeli occupation, his 2008 novel Isha Borahat Mib’sorah (published in English as To the End of the Land, 2010) is his first significant fictional representation of the subject. Upon its publication, the novel received almost instant – though not undisputed – canonical status, attracting both praise and criticism for its ambitious familial-political scope. Arriving in the wake of the failure of the Oslo Accords, and engaging somewhat with the political escapist leanings of its time (Keren 247), the novel is Grossman’s urgent call if not for action, then for a thorough national self-examination.
The novel tells the story of Ora, a soldier’s mother who flees her home in order to escape a visit from the Military Casualty Notification Unit whom she is convinced are about to deliver the news of her son Ofer’s death in a military operation on Israel’s northern border. As she hikes through the Galilee with her companion, Avram, who is Ofer’s estranged biological father, Ora composes for Avram a portrait of the son he never knew, and this private biography intertwines with Israel’s history of conflict from 1967 until the year 2000. Through Ora’s hike-narrative, Grossman creates an intimate portrait of one family whose fate is shattered by the Matsav, and he does so while deploying his hallmark linguistic virtuosity which, as Avidov Lipsker-Albeck notes, is formed by and deeply grounded within Israeli and Hebrew specificities (212). In this chapter, I analyse a number of linguistically and culturally dependant features of the text in order to demonstrate how Grossman’s writing poses some challenges to the translation of his literary rendition of the conflict. The issues described here are not concerned with aspects of a particular translation or target language but rather with attempts to relocate to a disinterested space those linguistic events that mimic or analogise the conflict.
So in the end it is the intellectual as a representative figure that matters — someone who visibly represents a standpoint of some kind, and someone who makes articulate representations to his or her public despite all sorts of barriers.
(Said, Representations of the Intellectual 12)
As I finished writing this chapter in June 2021, the world was facing a Coronavirus pandemic that has swept the globe and caused millions of deaths worldwide. I was constantly checking on the numbers of COVID-19 cases around the world, and at some point, I stumbled upon the website of Johns Hopkins University’s Center for Systems Science and Engineering to get updates on the numbers. I clearly remember that I could not locate Palestine on the map they had up on their website, even though news had it that there were cases in Gaza and Ramallah. It was later revealed by Ali Abunimah on a blog post published on the website of the Electronic Intifada, of which he is a co-founder, that the Johns Hopkins University’s Center for Systems Science and Engineering initially had an entry called ‘Palestine’ that was changed to ‘oPt,’ that is the occupied Palestinian territories, but was later merged with the entry ‘Israel’. It was under pressure and objection letters sent to the Center that they later had an entirely different entry listed as ‘West Bank and Gaza’ (Abunimah, ‘Johns Hopkins’). This incident of silencing and erasing Palestine is not the first of its kind, bearing in mind that the permission to narrate Palestine has long been denied, suppressed, manipulated and resisted throughout history as Edward Said argued almost forty years ago. In ‘Permission to Narrate,’ the late Said remarks that ‘The [Palestinians] are there all right, but the narrative of their present actuality – which stems directly from the story of their existence in and displacement from Palestine, later Israel – that narrative is not’ (30). What Palestine, as a nation, and Palestinians, as a group of people, suffered and are still suffering from is the result of a combination of settler colonialism, neoliberal capitalism, imperialism, Zionism, and racism – powers that American Palestinian women writers recognise and feel the urgency to contest, resist and universalise in their narratives.
The Palestinian struggle has long produced troubling and tragic but no less arresting images of a people resisting the seemingly insurmountable power of an occupying force. Images of young Palestinians, usually men, hurling rocks at the Israeli military are readily associated with Palestinian rebellion. The picture of Faris Odeh (Figure 4.1), for instance, captured in October 2000, facing an Israeli tank with a rock in hand, quickly became the iconic image of resistance during the Second Intifada (2000–5). Odeh himself, killed shortly after the picture was taken, has become a symbol of a defiant Palestinian rebel.
Odeh’s image has been more recently joined by other iconic photographs of Palestinian rebels, notably taken during Gaza’s Great March of Return, which began on 30 March 2018. Two in particular were widely circulated on social media: the first was of Saber al-Ashqar (Figure 4.2) who is captured in his wheelchair twirling a slingshot toward Israeli forces; the second was of A’ed Abu Amro (Figure 4.3), shirtless, emerging from heavy smoke with a Palestinian flag in one hand and a slingshot in the other.
Odeh, al-Asqar and Abu Amro can easily be assimilated into the plethora of engaging and powerful images of Palestinians demonstrating against Israeli brutality and occupation. These rebels and many others are rightly assumed to be fighting for statehood, but the recent image of Abu Amro points to a further goal that is tied closely to the quest for statehood. Abu Amro’s image has been associated with liberation and thus presents an opportunity for us to probe further how the assumption that the prime goal of Palestinian rebellion is statehood is related to or bound up with liberty. Abu Amro’s picture was quickly compared to Eugène Delacroix’s Liberty Leading the People (Figure 4.4), an 1830 painting of the French people’s fight for freedom during their revolution. Liberty, personified as a woman by Delacroix, is, like Abu Amro, surrounded by smoke, bare chested and clutching her nation’s tricolour flag.
The positioning of Abu Amro’s body, the smokiness of the scene and his similar triple-striped flag made the comparison all the more poignant. Abu Amro himself welcomed the resemblance because Liberty Leading the People is widely seen, especially in the West, as symbolic of the right to freedom.
Trade before Civilization explores the role that long-distance exchange played in the establishment and/or maintenance of social complexity, and its role in the transformation of societies from egalitarian to non-egalitarian. Bringing together research by an international and methodologically diverse team of scholars, it analyses the relationship between long-distance trade and the rise of inequality. The volume illustrates how elites used exotic prestige goods to enhance and maintain their elevated social positions in society. Global in scope, it offers case studies of early societies and sites in Europe, Asia, Oceania, North America, and Mesoamerica. Deploying a range of inter-disciplinary and cutting-edge theoretical approaches from a cross-cultural framework, the volume offers new insights and enhances our understanding of socio-political evolution. It will appeal to archaeologists, cultural anthropologists, conflict theorists, and ethnohistorians, as well as economists seeking to understand the nexus between imported luxury items and cultural evolution.
August Strindberg och Victor Hugo efterlämnade båda var sitt digert oeuvre med verk som tillhör många olika genrer. Båda gäller som sitt respektive lands största diktare – trots att en del av deras landsmän har haft svårt att acceptera detta faktum. Båda förändrade sitt modersmål, i synnerhet skriftspråket, samt de litterära normerna.
Victor Hugo (1802–1885) debuterade som romantikens främsta företrädare i Frankrike på 1820-talet med lyrik och dramer. Romanen Notre-Dame de Paris (Ringaren i Notre-Dame) utkom 1831. 1843 drunknade hans dotter Léopoldine, vilket blev en av hans livs smärtsammaste upplevelser. I många år förmådde han inte längre skriva skönlitteratur. Han ägnade sig åt politik. Under moderns inflytande hade han växt upp som monarkist, men närmade sig under årens lopp så småningom demokratismen. Bland hans mest betydande insatser som politiker var kampen mot dödsstraffet. Efter februarirevolutionen 1848 stödde han till en början Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, som hade valts till andra republikens president. Men när denne efter statskuppen i december 1851 utropades till kejsare blev Hugo till en av hans hårdaste motståndare. Han tvingades lämna Frankrike och bosatte sig slutligen på ön Guernsey, en av de brittiska kanalöarna, som hos honom kallas för L’Archipel de la Manche (”Engelska kanalens arkipelag”, som hör till Storbritannien men där det talas franska). Där började han skriva igen och blev mycket produktiv. Les Misérables (Samhällets olycksbarn) utkom 1862 och Les travailleurs de la mer (Havets arbetare) 1866 i Bryssel. Den första svenska översättningen publicerades samma år. Hugo kom tillbaka till Frankrike 1870 efter Napoleon III:s fall. Från och med detta år var han mycket populär i landet. Han fortsatte sin verksamhet som diktare, politiker och polemiker till sin död.
Hugos romaner skiljer sig tydligt från 1800-talets dominerande modell, den realistiska och naturalistiska romanen. De är inte heller bildningsromaner som föreställer “ett försök till syntes mellan hjältens önskningar och samhällets krav” (Roman 1999:461). De motsvarar överhuvudtaget ingen av de typer som definierats av Georg Lukács inom genren (Roman 1999:461). De uppvisar utopiska och filosofiska drag och fokuserar gärna på udda gestalter som inte sällan verkar orealistiska.
I mitten av det moderna genombrottets årtionde, 1880-talet, skrev August Strindberg artikeln “Teatrarna i svenska societeten”. Artikeln var del av en serie för den franska tidskriften Nouvelle Revue, och handlade om svensk teater och dramatik i Sverige (Strindberg 1999). Enligt Strindberg fanns det inte någon inhemsk svensk dramatik att tala om eftersom de svenska författarna var oförmögna att skriva dramatik. Med tanke på tidpunkten kan påståendet tolkas som ett sätt att positionera sig gentemot de starka kvinnliga dramatikerna under perioden. Strindberg syn delades av flera kritiker (jfr Ollén 1966:53).
Samtidigt hade Strindberg egna, nya planer för sitt dramatiska skrivande, som lanserades med pjäserna Fadren, Fröken Julie och Fordringsägare inspirerade av Zolas manifest om naturalismen (Zola 1881). Fadren hade också fått ett förord skrivet av Zola. Strindberg återkom i olika sammanhang till den svenska teatern och dramatikens brister. Som en av den svenska teaterns kritiker, blev Strindberg, som känt, också en av teaterns förnyare. Vid Strindbergs Intima teatern, som invigdes 1907, utvecklades idéer från hans Skandinaviska Försöksteatern, som han startade i Köpenhamn i slutet av 1880-talet. Tankarna om den lilla salongen, skådespelarnas spelstil och talets betydelse utvecklades vid Intima teatern, men även symbolistiskt inspirerade försök med ljus och rörelse.
En av dem som inspirerades av Strindberg och Intima teatern, var författaren och regissören Brita von Horn som fanns på plats när teatern slog upp dörrarna. Hon var där på ett av sina första recensentuppdrag. Von Horn startade flera teatrar under 1900-talets första hälft varav Sveriges Dramatikers Studio, som hon grundade 1940 tillsammans med Vilhelm Moberg, blev den mest långlivade. Med von Horn finns en direkt koppling mellan Strindbergs Intima teater och Sveriges Dramatikers Studio fram till Sveriges dramatikerförbund i våra dagar.
Svensk dramatik i motgång
I ett svenskt teaterhistoriskt perspektiv har det ofta inneburit en risk för en teater att enbart spela svensk dramatik. De teatrar som försökte tvingades inom några år att stänga eller ändra sin repertoar. Det gällde både de teatrar som gav mer populärt inriktad dramatik och de som hade en smalare repertoar. Ett exempel på en teater där det spelades uteslutande svensk dramatik var den Svenska teatern som grundades av hovbibliotekarien och översättaren Karl Fredrik Ristell, år 1787, på entreprenad med särskilt kungligt tillstånd.
Som bekant är Inferno en text där intertextualiteten är överväldigande. Olika genrer och diskurstyper blandas; mängder av citat och allusioner gör texten förtätad och mångtydig. Inferno anknyter bland annat till den kristna allegorin där världen textualiseras, med hjälp av referenser till tidigare texter görs läsbar. Därtill kommer att huvudpersonen bedriver en närmast manisk teckentydning, har en utpräglad benägenhet att överallt se likheter, samband, tecken.
Det jag här ska koncentrera mig på är en mer begränsad aspekt, nämligen verkets många bokstavliga lässituationer, dvs. situationer där jaget läser ur en bok och eventuellt citerar ur denna. Vilken strukturell och retorisk roll har dessa lässituationer? Hur förhåller de sig till den vidare teckentydningen och till intertextualiteten i stort? Hur påverkar de vårt sätt att läsa Inferno?
Eftersom många redan dröjt utförligt vid vad huvudpersonen läser kommer jag här mer att uppehålla mig vid hur och när han läser.
Generellt kan man säga att lässituationerna (liksom andra tolkningssituationer) redan från början är ett viktigt led i textens rytm: mer eller mindre dramatiserade redogörelser för händelser växlar med uttydning. Samtidigt finns i Inferno en övergripande rörelse mot alltmer reflektion eller rentav förkunnelse. Med tanke på det retrospektiva berättandet kan man tala om en tillbakahållandets konst. Länge är explikationen måttlig, världen är för såväl huvudpersonen som läsaren på många sätt förvirrande. Men efterhand blir explikationen mer framträdande. Samtidigt kvarstår in i det sista en ambivalens, paradoxalt nog delvis genom mängden av lässituationer och citat. Men låt oss se närmare på lässituationerna. Först och främst ska sägas att referenser till läsning är ganska frekventa i Inferno. Det gäller särskilt om man beaktar all läsning: vardaglig brevväxling, tidningsläsning på kaféet, studiet av olika religiösa texter. Ibland rör det sig främst om hastiga omtalanden av läsning. Men ofta – speciellt längre in i romanen – får läsaren mer utförliga skildringar av hur huvudpersonen tar fram en bok, läser en passage och begrundar den.
Vanligt ar att lasningen fungerar som stod, bekraftelse, vagledning, men mest utbredd ar snarast den lasning som huvudpersonen bedriver i syfte att tolka den egna erfarenheten, att battre forsta verkligheten och det som hander honom.
Spörsmålet som jag vill ta upp i denna artikel är hur den kreativa processen och det skrivande subjektets mentala tillstånd framställs i det filmiska mediet med hjälp av intermediala gestaltningsstrategier. Som exempel ska jag använda mig av två filmer: Inferno (1973) av Stanislav Barabáš och Barton Fink (1991) av bröderna Coen.
Meningen är att förankra Barabáš adaptation av August Strindbergs Inferno i ett bredare sammanhang, i en genre som Ethan Coen i en intervju har kallat för “[a] Person Alone in the Room” (Allen 2006:56). Min tes är att det litterära mediet och dess uppkomstprocess medvetet remedieras i de båda filmerna. Skrivandet tematiseras i Inferno och Barton Fink som kroppslig aktivitet som i sin del är ett resultat av protagonistens affektiva tillstånd; medan manuskriptet i filmerna framställs som en påtaglig produkt av denna aktivitet.
Med utgångspunkt i den intermediala teoribildningen och begreppsapparaten som skapades av Werner Wolf (1999) samt David Bolter och Richard Grusin (1998) ska jag granska hur remedieringen av det litterära mediet sker.
Teoretiska utgångspunkter
Remediering är en term införd av David Bolter och Richard Grusin och betyder att man representerar ett medium i ett annat (Bolter, Grusin 1998:45). Remediering har enligt teoretikerna två former: antingen kan medieringstekniker vara fördolda och således osynliga, vilket kallas för immedialitet (”transparent immediacy”, t.ex. virtuell verklighet), eller så kan de medvetet synliggöras och själva mediet multipliceras, vilket i sin tur kallas för hypermedialitet (”hypermediacy”, internet). Skillnaden mellan de två remedieringsformerna förklaras av Bolter och Grusin så här:
The logic of hypermediacy acknowledges multiple acts of representation and makes them visible. Where immediacy suggest a unified visual space, contemporary hypermediacy offers a heterogenous space, in which representation is conceived of not as a window on the world, but rather as “windowed itself”. (Bolter, Grusin 1998:33 f.)
Som Barbara Straumann skriver ägnar Bolter och Grusin sin uppmärksamhet åt new digital media men deras uppdelning kan även med stort utbyte användas i analyser av litteraturens remediering i filmadaptationer (jfr Straumann 2015:224 f.). Hon påpekar att de flesta filmadaptationer filmatiserar romanens fabel och skildrar dess karaktärer men inte är intresserade av romanen som medium i sig. Resultatet blir att det inte finns någon medveten interreaktion mellan det litterära och det filmiska mediet. Därför tillhör sådana filmatiseringar kategorin immedialitet.
In theatre, there is always the wish to make a production relevant to its audience, be it based on a new or classic text. Old texts have been re-inpreted in new times, in new contexts, in many various ways.
When it comes to August Strindberg, there has often been the question of his (alleged) misogyny and that is my point of departure. My hypothesis is that it is not so easy to avoid Strindberg’ s intentions since they are firmly rooted in the very structure of his plays.
One interesting example is the production of The Father at Stockholm City Theatre in 2010. The director, Philip Zandén tried to counteract the play's very strong bias in favor of the male protagonist by telling the story from the point of view of his daughter, Bertha, now an established artist (like in another Strindberg play, Kamraterna). However, since the story was told in basically the same order and with the same scenes as the original, this shift of focus did not work. It simply was not plausible that Bertha would remember the events where she was not even present. Zandén, on the other hand, stressed the baby-like vulnerability of the male protagonist.
From now on I will deal strictly with productions and adaptations of Miss Julie, of which there are many all over the world. The many productions prove the play's wide appeal; I suspect that the cast consisting of two women and one man is an important factor of the popularity of the play (not counting the extras, who are often dispensed with). I am particularly interested in how the plot is rendered and the effect of this in each case.
My point of view is that of a theatre critic. In my life I have seen quite a few miss Julies which may explain my weariness when I see bad ones. Some of them I have reviewed, others I have seen anyway. For instance, I saw the extremely popular version directed by Thommy Berggren at the Royal Dramatic Theatre in Stockholm (premiere 1 Oct. 2005). Mikael Persbrandt's Jean was shown as some kind of working class hero, while Marie Bonnevie's Julie was half crazy from the beginning. This destroyed the intricate power shift which is the play's greatest asset.
Ockulta dagboken erbjuder en uppsjö av tolkningsmöjligheter. Den hybrida texten kan läsas som en intim dagbok över ett äktenskapligt misslyckande, en arbetsalmanacka med koncisa inlägg om det egna skapandet, en bokmals redovisning av sina dagliga läsningar eller en rapport över aktuella politiska händelser med Dreyfusaffären i spetsen. Framför allt är den dock ett brottstycke av den förklaring om universums grundläggande principer som Strindberg har odlat sedan Infernokrisen. Efter krisen blir människans förhållande till “das Jenseits” (ett begrepp som författaren använder i sina brev) det mest centrala problemet i hans tankevärld. En stor del av dagbokens ledmotiv är kända från essäerna och En blå bok: hit hör anteckningar om meteorologiska och astronomiska järtecken såsom kometer, översvämningar och cykloner; noter om krig och andra “providentiella tilldragelser” samt numerologiska spekulationer kring siffror på spårvagnar eller spelkort. Dagbokens referenser är globala: de omfattar bränder i Lima, jordbävningar i San Francisco, i Guatemala, på Jamaica och på Martinique, vulkanutbrott på Sicilien och stormväder över Berlin.
Strindberg påbörjade dagboken 1896 på Hotel Orfila i Paris och avslutade den – ganska abrupt – 1908 på Drottninggatan 85 med anteckningen “Skrev «Siste Riddaren» 17e–27e Augusti” (Strindberg 2012:302). Även om dagboksgenren är starkt fokuserad på det intima var Strindberg alltid en författare med skärpt blick för den kulturella dynamiken i Sverige och på kontinenten. Spridda över hela dagboken finns lakoniska referenser till ämnen som diskuterades bland den kulturellt intresserade offentligheten kring 1900: Mallarmés och Ibsens död, Brandes filosofiska föreläsningar eller Marie Curies upptäckt av radium. Nyss timade händelser sätts in i ett historiskt mönster; precis som i manuskripten från Gröna säcken är Strindberg ute efter att synkronisera politiska och kulturella begivenheter för att visa en övergripande mening i världshistorien. Metoden kan ses som en modern variant av kronologin, en antik vetenskap som går ut på att man sammanställer stora historiska händelser i synkroniska tabeller. Kronologin återupplivades av den franske humanisten Joseph Scalinger och odlades flitigt av till exempel Isaac Newton. Den kronologiska metoden blev en viktig etapp i orientalistikens utveckling: redan tidigt började tabellerna innefatta historiska händelser ur judarnas, egyptiernas, indiernas och kinesernas historia.
The relationship between Strindberg and Jens Peter Jacobsen is probably not among the most relevant when considering Strindberg's Western canon. Nonetheless, Jacobsen's presence in Strindberg's works has been investigated more than once by scholars (e.g. Stensgård 1960; Bergholz 1972; Vinge 1985), whose suggestions have been at times surprising, as we will soon see.
The quotation I have chosen for my paper's title appears in a letter to Edvard Brandes on July 25, 1881, and, as far as I know, it is the only passage where Strindberg mentions both of Jacobsen's novels. Despite its conciseness, this document—which is not the first on Jacobsen, rather one of the last—displays some important features regarding Strindberg's reception of Jacobsen's work. First, his relation with the Danish author was mediated by Edvard Brandes, a key figure in Strindberg's experience of Danish culture and society: as we know, together with his brother Georg, he was one of the most prominent and innovative intellectuals in Denmark at that time (in 1884, he was among the founders of the pioneering social liberal newspaper Politiken); on the contrary, we do not have letters between Strindberg and Jacobsen. Second, it is Fru Marie Grubbe (1876) the work—or, more precisely, the character—whose literary potential Strindberg seems to perceive, whereas Niels Lyhne (1880), Jacobsen's most famous and appreciated creation until now, is left aside. Finally, we could reflect on the different, quite contrary connotations given by Strindberg to Jacobsen's works: if his first novel turns into a sort of epiphany, and this “vision” might even express the sense of an incomplete experience, Niels Lyhne, on the contrary, is not as pleasant, and it rather reveals all its limits in the protagonist's inner contradictions. I would already dare say that Strindberg's attitude towards Jacobsen generally varies between these two antithetical reactions. By the way, words like “söndring” (fragmentation) or “skef” (crooked) appeared in the first Swedish reviews of Niels Lyhne, certainly read by Strindberg.