The story of free and open software is a scientific adventure, packed with extraordinary, larger-than-life characters and epic achievements. From infrastructure for the Internet to operating systems like Linux, this movement involves some of the great accomplishments in computing over the past quarter century. The story encompasses technological advances, global software collaboration on an unprecedented scale, and remarkable software tools for facilitating distributed development. It involves innovative business models, voluntary and corporate participation, and intriguing legal questions. Its achievements have had widespread impact in education and government, as well as historic cultural and commercial consequences. Some of its attainments occurred before the Internet's rise, but it was the Internet's emergence that knitted together the scientific bards of the open source community. It let them exchange their innovations and interact almost without regard to constraints of space, time, or national boundary. Our story recounts the tales of major open community projects: Web browsers that fueled and popularized the Internet, the long dominant Apache Web server, the multifarious development of Unix, the near-mythical rise of Linux, desktop environments like GNOME, fundamental systems like those provided by the Free Software Foundation's GNU project, infrastructure like the X Window System, and more. We will encounter creative, driven scientists who are often bold, colorful entrepreneurs or eloquent scientific spokesmen. The story is not without its conflicts, both internal and external to the movement.

This chapter attempts to present a balanced view of what the future seems likely to hold for the open source movement based on past and present trends and the underlying structural, social, political, scientific, and economic forces at work. We will first sketch what we believe are the likely dominant modes for software development and then we will elaborate on the rationales for our projections.

First of all, we believe the open source paradigm is moving inexorably toward worldwide domination of computer software infrastructure. Its areas of dominance seem likely to include not only the network and its associated utilities, but also operating systems, desktop environments, and the standard office utilities. Significantly, it seems that precisely the most familiar and routine applications will become commoditized and satisfied by open source implementations, facilitating pervasive public recognition of the movement. The software products whose current dominance seems likely to decline because of this transformation include significant components of the Microsoft environment from operating systems to office software.

However, despite a likely widespread increase in the recognition, acceptance, and use of open source, this does not imply that open software will dominate the entire universe of software applications. The magnitude of financial resources available to proprietary developers is enormous and increasing, giving such corporations a huge advantage in product development. One might note, for example, that expenditures on research and development by publicly traded software companies increased tenfold between 1986 and 2000, from 1 to 10% of industrial research expenditures (Evans, 2002).

The free software movement emerged in the early 1980s at a time when the ARPANET network with its several hundred hosts was well-established and moving toward becoming the Internet. The ARPANET already allowed exchanges like e-mail and FTP, technologies that significantly facilitated distributed collaboration, though the Internet was to amplify this ability immensely. The TCP/IP protocols that enabled the Internet became the ARPANET standard on January 1, 1983. As a point of reference, recall that the flagship open source GNU project was announced by Richard Stallman in early 1983. By the late 1980s the NSFNet backbone network merged with the ARPANET to form the emerging worldwide Internet. The exponential spread of the Internet catalyzed further proliferation of open source development. This chapter will describe some of the underlying enabling technologies of the open source paradigm, other than the Internet itself, with an emphasis on the centralized Concurrent Versions System (CVS) versioning system as well as the newer decentralized BitKeeper and Git systems that are used to manage the complexities of distributed open development. We also briefly discuss some of the well-known Web sites used to host and publicize open projects and some of the services they provide.

The specific communications technologies used in open source projects have historically tended to be relatively lean: e-mail, mailing lists, newsgroups, and later on Web sites, Internet Relay Chat, and forums. Most current activity takes place on e-mail mailing lists and Web sites (Feller and Fitzgerald, 2002).

The Open Source Initiative represents the formalization of one stream of the free and open software movement. We have described its establishment in 1998 by Raymond and Perens, and Peterson's coinage of the term open source as an alternative to what was thought to be the more ideologically laden phrase free software. Of course, ever since the mid-1980s, the other distinct stream of the movement represented by the Free Software Foundation (FSF) and the GNU project had already been active. The FSF and Richard Stallman initiated the free software concept, defined its terms, vigorously and boldly publicized its motivations and objectives, established and implemented the core GNU project, and led advocacy and compliance for the free software movement. They have been instrumental in its burgeoning success. We have already discussed the FSF's General Public License (GPL) in Chapter 6. This chapter describes the origin and technical objectives of the GNU project that represents one of the major technical triumphs of the free software movement. We also elaborate on some of the responsibilities, activities, and philosophical principles of the FSF, particularly as expressed by FSF General Counsel Eben Moglen.

The GNU project

The GNU project was founded to create a self-contained free software platform. The project was begun in 1983 by Stallman. It had an ambitious and arguably almost utopian vision. The acronym GNU stands for “GNU's Not Unix,” a kind of recursive acronym that was popular at MIT where Stallman worked.

This chapter describes a number of open source applications related to the Internet that are intended to introduce the reader unfamiliar with the world of open development to some of its signature projects, ideas, processes, and people. These projects represent remarkable achievements in the history of technology and business. They brought about a social and communications revolution that transformed society, culture, commerce, technology, and even science. The story of these classic developments as well as those in the next chapter is instructive in many ways: for learning how the open source process works, what some of its major accomplishments have been, who some of the pioneering figures in the field are, how projects have been managed, how people have approached development in this context, what motivations have led people to initiate and participate in such projects, and what some of the business models are that have been used for commercializing associated products.

Web servers and Web browsers are at the heart of the Internet and free software has been prominent on both the server and browser ends. Thus the first open source project we will investigate is a server, the so-called National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) Web server developed by Rob McCool in the mid-1990s. His work had in turn been motivated by the then recent creation by Tim Berners-Lee of the basic tools and concepts for a World Wide Web (WWW), including the invention of the first Web server and browser, HTML (the Hypertext Markup Language), and the HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol).

Sound is one of the foundations of human interaction. It serves as the conduit for free speech, conveys the emotional appeal in music, and most importantly, is the most commonly used vehicle for interpersonal communication. Sound in technology provides users with the ability to control how, when, and where the user hears and responds to other people as well as systems. Peoples' desire to interact by way of sound and to manipulate sounds can be seen in the rapid adoption by mainstream consumers of the telephone, tape recorder, audio mixing boards, and the CB radio. Digital, interactive networks and the devices that connect to them will provide the next generation of consumers with even greater personal control over the power of sound.

This chapter explores three ways in which consumers' expectations and uses of sound impact the evolution of digital networks. First, we take a look at how digital networks evolved from communication networks. Then we examine how digital networks change and extend how consumers buy and use music. Finally, we explore the services that sit on top of the digital networks to help consumers use the power of voice to drive device behavior. After reading this chapter, you should have a good understanding of the following topics:

• How sound has evolved through interactive technologies

• How consumers have responded to the evolution of interactive sound

• How the evolution of digital networks help create a marketplace that address the needs of the interactive consumer

Let's start by taking a look at how sound has evolved in computers.

As devices become more common in the household, interactive services have evolved from a novelty into a common occurrence in people's lives. In order for integrated services to develop into a daily necessity, consumers need confidence that the technology and services are truly reliable. Integrated services provide the promise of a ubiquitous network with access to an array of information and media-rich services through increasingly powerful devices. Delivering on the promise involves significant challenges. The adoption of new devices and the resulting changes of consumer behavior create new expectations. Consumers expect reliability and ubiquitous access to service. Consumers also demand that services and devices will continue to improve with minimal inconvenience to the consumer when upgrading. This chapter explores the balancing act between increased consumer adoption and the requirements placed upon the providers of integrated services to meet such demands.

After reading this chapter, you should have a good understanding of the following topics:

• The role of infrastructure for integrated services

• Which enabling technologies contribute to next generation infrastructures

• How continued consumer adoption affects learned behavior surrounding ubiquitous access, dependence, and continuous upgrading of services

FROM NOVELTY TO NECESSITY

As people continue to incorporate integrated services into their lives, consumers begin to rely on the information and services to a greater extent. This shift from novelty to necessity places substantial requirements upon the providers of integrated services. The concept of reliance on a service is not new.

Consumers incorporate integrated services into daily routines when the benefits provided reflect their real needs. Focusing exclusively on enabling technologies rather than the customer needs is a common mistake made by designers of new devices and applications. While technology enables companies to provide new classes of integrated services, attention to classic product marketing processes leads to the integrated service's success in the marketplace. The ongoing cycle of consumers adopting new devices, developing new behaviors, and forming new expectations results in a constantly changing market. New customers with shifting expectations provide significant challenges to both the designers and marketers of integrated services. Focusing on customer needs rather than the cool new technology while designing and packaging integrated services helps ensure success for an integrated service.

After reading this chapter, you should have a good understanding of the following topics:

• The role of product marketing for integrated services

• The roles that context, cost, and clear communication play in the success of integrated services

• The characteristics of change in integrated services

BACK TO BASICS

It can sometimes be hard to believe that simple rules compose the heart of an integrated service's complex array of technologies, business models, and consumer behavior. Peter Drucker wrote that the two primary functions of a company are marketing and innovation. Everything else is simply a cost to the business. While the most visible aspect of marketing is product advertising, product marketing is arguably the most important marketing function carried out for an integrated service.

An integrated service consists of devices, networks, and the applications. Devices serve as the touch point through which consumers gain access to networks and integrated services. Interactive consumers often value applications and services through the looking glass of the devices. For example, a consumer who uses email constantly depends on a computer or another Internet-enabled device to access the service. As a result, devices help sell services by providing the tangible manifestation of the service for the consumer. The evolution of customer expectations begins with the adoption of the new device and ends with new demands on the services. When consumers adopt a new device, they begin to alter their behavior to incorporate the device into their lifestyle. Buying a new cell phone introduces conversations in line at the grocery store. Subscribing to interactive television services promotes the possibility of checking email through the television. These new, learned behaviors emerge from new patterns of device and service utilization. In turn, the emergence of new learned behavior contributes to new expectations from the consumer about interactive systems in the consumer's life. The designers of interactive systems are on a perpetual treadmill of providing new integrated services in the marketplace that meet the shifting expectations of consumers.

This chapter explores the role of devices in integrated services and identifies some of the changing behaviors that are being exhibited with the adoption of these devices.

Digital networks and devices change our expectations about managing and accessing visual images. Photographs capture memories, movies share rich stories, and we escape to new worlds and perform the humanly impossible via video games. As technologies emerge to give users control over visual imagery, interacting between photos, video, and televised images becomes an active engagement rather than a passive experience.

This chapter explores three ways in which interactive technologies change a consumers' visual expectations. First, we take a look at the change in consumers' expectations about how we build shared memories with digital photography and digital video. Second, we explore the evolution of television, as the viewer gains control over television content. Technologies like digital video recorders (DVRs) and video on demand have changed how we watch TV by extending the viewer's understanding of programming and control in viewing. Finally, we discuss the phenomenon that is video gaming and explore the impact of a networked gaming world. After reading this chapter, you should have a good understanding of the following topics:

• Which enabling technologies impact the evolution of visual interactive experiences

• How consumers create new learned behaviors by adopting interactive visual technologies

• How new visual interactive services are built on top of the next generation of digital devices and networks

Before delving into these areas, let's first take a look at the relationship between consumers and their visual experiences.

CONSUMERS AND VISUAL EXPERIENCES

We watch television, see movies, and take photographs by the millions.

Digital devices, complex networks, and interactive applications and services permeate our daily routines. The adoption of digital, integrated services in peoples' lives stems from a causal chain involving customers of new technologies, device designers and application product planners. Consumer expectations, set by the growing capabilities of interactive devices, fuel innovation from application and service product planners. Product planners then push the device designers to accommodate their increasingly sophisticated features (see Figure 1-1). The key to continual improvement without costly design mistakes lies in understanding how the consumers' expectations evolve with usage.

For example, cell phones with Internet access influence the consumers' expectations about repurposing the phone for other uses. However, browsing the Internet on a cell phone is a frustrating experience, due to the limited screen display. Application and service designers step in to meet consumers' expectations of Internet access with alternatives to Web browsing. Internet-based applications deliver discrete amounts of information suited to the cell phone's screen display, such as personalized weather and stock quotes. Internet-based instant messaging and chat allow consumers the ability to use the phone's small screen for shorthand text messages. The adoption of these types of services and applications provides incentive for device designers to develop new features to accommodate the different usage.

The evolutionary cycle for interactive devices moves as fast as the device manufacturers and application providers release new variations of the product.

As interactive services permeate the home, many of the more basic household services such as home security follow the trend toward more sophisticated owner and device interaction. Household devices like alarm systems evolve from stand-alone warning appliances to being networked into frontline sensing devices for interactive services. These networked devices provide owners with the ability to monitor homes remotely. The latest advances in monitoring feature manufacturers networking household sensing devices and tying them into a service center. Monitoring solutions increase safety and security and are evolving into platforms for enhanced productivity. As people have come to adopt and rely on these systems, the reliability and predictability of such systems become increasingly important. Interactive monitoring systems for the home require a high level of reliability, as owners will not tolerate downtime from a device as important as a security system.

This chapter explores three ways that interactive technologies are being deployed as monitoring solutions. These advanced monitoring solutions combine the power of location-determining technologies, sensors, and networked service centers. First, we explore how telematics make the automobile safer and easier to maintain. Second, we describe personal safety solutions ranging from personal emergency response systems to embedded monitoring health systems. And finally, we examine how the home is becoming safer through networked security systems.

After reading this chapter, you should have a good understanding of the following topics:

• What enabling technologies are powering interactive monitoring systems

• How consumers are using these new monitoring systems to be safer, healthier, and more productive

• How telematics, embedded health monitoring systems, and home security systems have moved alarm systems into the realm of interactive services