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9808 results in Engineering: general interest

Page 47 of 491

  • Hints

  • Péter Gnädig, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Gyula Honyek, Máté Vigh, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest
  • Edited in consultation with Ken F. Riley, University of Cambridge
  • Book:
    200 More Puzzling Physics Problems
    Published online:
    05 May 2016
    Print publication:
    28 April 2016, pp 65-90

  • Summary

    H1 Consider the motions of the bodies both in the original frame of reference and in another frame that moves with velocity v0 relative to the first one. Apply the Galilean transformation formulae.

    H2 Be careful, the transformation principle due to Galileo Galilei applies only to inertial reference frames. The idea that Ann simply observes Bob moving towards her with a speed of 1 m s−1 is false.

    H3 It is easier to solve the problem in a frame of reference fixed to the cart. A vector diagram of velocities, superimposed on a geometrical one showing the initial situation, should prove helpful.

    H4 It is helpful to describe Joe's motion using a reference frame moving with the river water; imagine that we are in a boat that drifts with the river. Using this frame of reference, a suitable optical analogy and the application of Fermat's principle can help us to find Joe's optimal trajectory.

    H5 The description of the disc's motion in a frame of reference fixed to the table is not easy. Try using a reference frame moving with the conveyor belt.

    H6 The task can be tackled in several ways. One possibility is to analyse the turning process in an appropriate projection of phase space, namely in the vx– vy coordinate system. Another good idea is to use an inertial frame of reference moving relative to the ice in a suitably chosen direction.

    H7 From the tangential and centripetal components of the acceleration, determine the horizontal and vertical ones.

    H8 Finding accurate time intervals for the two sections of the motion is very difficult. To answer the question as posed, it is easier to compare an underestimate of the time to cover arc AP with an overestimated time for arc PB.

    H9 Show that the axis of symmetry of a parabola makes an angle with the tangent to the parabola at any point P that is half the angle it makes with the line connecting P to the focus.

    H10 Instead of using calculus, let us try to solve the problem using a variety of techniques, e.g. by investigating the number of real roots of a quadratic equation, or by using the properties and geometric representations of relevant vectors.

The Mining Industry
  • Evidence and Report of the Industrial Commission of Enquiry
  • Compiled by The Witwatersrand Chamber of Mines
  • Published online:
    05 November 2015
    Print publication:
    26 September 2013
  • The mining industry was a fundamental part of the economy of South Africa in the late nineteenth century, and control of the region's gold mines was a significant factor in the tension between Dutch and English settlers that led to the Second Boer War in 1899. In 1889 the Witwatersrand Chamber of Mines had been formed to promote the industry's development. Economic problems in the region led the Volksraad of the South African Republic to set up a Commission of Enquiry in 1897 to investigate high tariffs, labour and transport costs which were adversely affecting the mining industry. The 1897 report reissued here was not that of the commission itself, but contains much of the evidence and statistical material presented to it, in the hope that the mining industry would adopt its recommendations. As such, this detailed resource remains relevant to economic historians of South Africa and the British Empire.

The Scientific Papers of the Honourable Henry Cavendish, F. R. S
  • Volume 2
  • Henry Cavendish
  • Edited by Sir Edward Thorpe
  • Published online:
    05 November 2015
    Print publication:
    02 February 2011
    First published in:
    1921
  • Henry Cavendish (1731–1810) was an English scientist whose published work was mostly concerned with electricity. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1760. Cavendish was a prolific scientific investigator, performing experiments on not only electricity but also magnetism, thermometry, gases, heat potential and the chemical composition of water. Although he published some of his research, including his discovery of hydrogen, the majority of his work remained unpublished until 1879, when James Clerk Maxwell published a collection of Cavendish's electrical experiments. These papers showed that Cavendish had discovered many important electrical concepts which had since been credited to other researchers, including the concept of electric potential. First published in 1921, these volumes are a collection of Cavendish's results from his many experiments. Volume 2 contains previously unpublished papers showing the results of Cavendish's chemical, magnetic and thermometry experiments.

The Scientific Papers of the Honourable Henry Cavendish, F. R. S
  • Volume 1, The Electrical Researches
  • Henry Cavendish
  • Edited by James Clerk Maxwell, Sir Joseph Larmor
  • Published online:
    05 November 2015
    Print publication:
    02 February 2011
    First published in:
    1921
  • Henry Cavendish (1731–1810) was an English scientist whose published work was mostly concerned with electricity. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1760. Cavendish was a prolific scientific investigator, performing experiments on not only electricity but also magnetism, thermometry, gases, heat potential and the chemical composition of water. Although he published some of his research, including his discovery of hydrogen, the majority of his work remained unpublished until 1879, when James Clerk Maxwell published a collection of Cavendish's electrical experiments. These papers showed that Cavendish had discovered many important electrical concepts which had since been credited to other researchers, including the concept of electric potential. First published in 1921, these volumes are a collection of Cavendish's results from his many experiments. Volume 1 is a revised edition of James Clerk Maxwell's 1879 volume Electrical Researches of Henry Cavendish, also reissued in this series.

Electromagnetic Waves
  • Oliver Heaviside
  • Published online:
    05 November 2015
    Print publication:
    22 December 2011
    First published in:
    1889
  • Oliver Heaviside (1850–1925), the self-taught physicist and electrical engineer, began his career as an operator on the newly laid Anglo-Danish telegraph cable in 1868. The most advanced electrical technology of the time, the cable system inspired several of his early mathematical papers. This monograph, first published as a paper in the Philosophical Magazine in 1888, then as a book in 1889, draws on his established work on telegraphic propagation and self-inductance, and on Maxwell's field theory. In a fascinating insight into the contemporary scientific community, he complains that these subjects are still often misunderstood, and explains his formulae afresh from several angles. Also covered - and frequently questioned - are contemporary theories of permittivity, the speed of electromagnetic waves, and the dielectric properties of conductors. Heaviside's Electrical Papers (2 volumes, 1892) and his Electromagnetic Theory (3 volumes, 1893–1912) have also been reissued in this series.

  • 4 - Ecosystems

  • Mahua Basu, Xavier Savarimuthu, SJ
  • Book:
    Fundamentals of Environmental Studies
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    01 October 2015, pp 112-152

  • Summary

    Learning objectives

  • ▄ To define and build up the concept of ecology and ecosystem.

  • ▄ To be acquainted with abiotic and biotic components of the ecosystem.

  • ▄ To know about their structural arrangement like food chain, food webs and ecological pyramids.

  • ▄ To find out how these structures are related to functions like energy flow and nutrient recycling.

  • ▄ To know about the process of transition in ecosystem (ecological succession).

  • ▄ To classify ecosystem.

  • ▄ To know the characteristic features and distribution of biota in various ecosystems and the reason behind such distribution.

  • ▄ To develop a comprehensive understanding about the various species interactions.

  • ▄ To enumerate the ecosystem services that people receive.

    • Definition and Concept of Ecology

    The word ecology has emanated to the forefront of human consciousness. It is the branch of science that incorporates the basic conceptions of civilization. The word was introduced by Hans Reiter, a German scientist, by combining two words ‘Oikos’ (house) and ‘logos’ (to study). Thus, it deals with the study of animal and plant inter-relationship and also their relation to the environment. Ernst Haeckel was the first to define ecology as the systematic study of organisms in their natural home. It was Odum (1963) who defined ecology as ‘the study of structure and function of nature’. It is the study of any or all inter-relationships between organisms in relation to their surrounding or environment. Ecology can be studied as plant and animal ecology. Often the tern ‘bioecology’ is used when equal importance is given to the study of flora and fauna.

    Ecology as a discipline

    Ecology was regarded as an offshoot of biology as it deals with all forms of life and explores the riddles at different hierarchies of living systems. But presently, it is a multidisciplinary science that requires input from the various streams like physics, chemistry, biology, geography, geology, economics, international relations, policies, legislation and uses mathematical, statistical and computational tools to explain naturally observed phenomena with relevance to their varied consequences.

    There are four fundamental doctrines of ecology.

  • ▄ It encompasses a web of inter-relations of its constituents.

  • ▄ These interconnected networks form an arrangement that involves both abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living) components.

  • 5 - Biodiversity and Its Conservation

  • Mahua Basu, Xavier Savarimuthu, SJ
  • Book:
    Fundamentals of Environmental Studies
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    01 October 2015, pp 153-207

  • Summary

    Learning objectives

  • ▄ To understand the various aspects and levels of biodiversity.

  • ▄ To know about the various biogeographical regions and enormous wealth of India along with global perspective.

  • ▄ To realize and develop a value and appreciation for the biodiversity services we receive.

  • ▄ To draw attention towards the threats that biodiversity confronts.

  • ▄ To know about scientific biodiversity management strategies.

    • Introduction and Concept

    The primary aims of the Convention of Biodiversity (CBD) are:

  • ▄ conserving biodiversity including protection and management;

  • ▄ sustainable and viable employment of the constituents of biodiversity; and

  • ▄ rational and justifiable benefit distribution that arise out of the utilization of genetic resources.

    • India being a signatory party to the CBD also pursues the same objectives.

    According to Convention of Biodiversity, CBD, 1992 ‘Biological diversity’ means the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems’.

    The term ‘biological diversity’was invented by Thomas Lovejoy in 1980 while the word ‘biodiversity’was invented by Walter G. Rosen in 1985; however, it appeared for the first time in 1988, in an article by EO Wilson. Diversity can be defined as the total number of diverse objects and their relative frequency in which they occur on earth. In other words, biological diversityrefers to the variety (multiplicity) and variability (changeability) among the sum total of allorganisms along with the environmental domains in which they usually occur.

    According to World Resources Institute (WRI), World Conservation Union (WCU),and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), in ‘Global Biodiversity Strategy,’ 1992: ‘Biodiversity is the totality of genes, species, and ecosystems in a region…’. Biodiversity can be represented by three hierarchical or tiered categories, i.e., in terms of genes, in terms of species, and in terms of ecosystems that refer to and describe relatively different aspects of living organizations that scientist's quantify in diverse ways.

    In biodiversity, the organization of living beings is considered at various levels, starting from the complete ecosystems right up to the chemical assemblies that constitutes the hereditary units at molecular level. Hence, biodiversity includes various ecosystems, various species, various genes and their comparative abundance.

  • 8 - Disaster and Disaster Management

  • Mahua Basu, Xavier Savarimuthu, SJ
  • Book:
    Fundamentals of Environmental Studies
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    01 October 2015, pp 315-343

  • Summary

    Learning objectives

  • ▄ To develop a comprehensive understanding of the concept of vulnerability, risks, hazards and disaster as well as scope of environmental studies.

  • ▄ To know about various types of disasters in general.

  • ▄ To develop an understanding of disaster management, its structure and organization.

  • ▄ To elicit public awareness and collective response to protect ourselves from various types of disasters.

  • ▄ To know about prevention, mitigation and response in cases of floods, cyclones and earthquakes.

  • ▄ To analyse the causes, impact and mitigation measures through case studies.

    • Introduction and Definition

    Disaster is an incident or series of events that gives rise to casualties and loss or destruction of surroundings, buildings, properties, infrastructural facilities and all other vital services or survival means to such an extent that is not within normal means and competence of affected people to deal with. Disaster can be defined as ‘catastrophic situation in which the normal pattern of life or ecosystem has been disrupted and extraordinary emergency interventions are required to save and preserve lives and or the environment’.

    The United Nationsdefines disaster as ‘the occurrence of sudden or major misfortune which disrupts the basic fabric and normal functioning of the society or community’.

    As per the Disaster Management Act, 2005, disaster is defined as:

    ‘a catastrophe, mishap, calamity or grave occurrence in any area, arising from natural or manmade causes, or by accident or negligence which results in substantial loss of life or human suffering or damage to, and destruction of, property, or damage to, or degradation of, environment, and is of such a nature or magnitude as to be beyond the coping capacity of the community of the affected area’.

    Ingredients of disaster

  • ▄ An event comprising trauma for a population/environment.

  • ▄ A vulnerable position/area that bears the load of the traumatizing incident.

  • ▄ The breakdown of local and neighbouring resources to cope with the problems created by the phenomenon.

    • Characteristics of disaster

  • ▄ Inevitability or certainty. ▄ Ability to be forbidden. ▄ Pace of onset.

  • ▄ Span of forewarning. ▄ Extent of impact. ▄ Scope and intensity of impact.

    • Factors affecting disaster

  • ▄ Host factors

  • i. age of the individuals; ii. status of immunization; iii. degree of mobility; and iv. emotional stability.

  • ▄ Environmental factors

  • i. physical factors; ii. chemical factors; iii. social factors; and iv. psychological factors.

  • 1 - Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies

  • Mahua Basu, Xavier Savarimuthu, SJ
  • Book:
    Fundamentals of Environmental Studies
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    01 October 2015, pp 1-25

  • Summary

    Learning objectives

  • ▄ To develop a comprehensive understanding of the concept and scope of environment studies.

  • ▄ To know about the immense importance of environment as a subject.

  • ▄ To develop public awareness about our environment and elicit collective response for its protection.

  • ▄ To gather information about organizations and people relentlessly working in this field.

  • ▄ To know and analyse the types of environment and environmental components and how they affect our survival.

    • Definition and Concept of Environment

    The word environment is derived from the French word environ, meaning external conditions or surroundings that favour the growth of flora and fauna, human beings and their properties and protect them from the effects of pollution.

    According to Douglas and Holland (1947), environment is ‘a word which describes, in the aggregate, all of the extrinsic (external) forces influences and conditions, which affect the life, nature, behaviour and the growth, development and maturation of living organisms’.

    ‘Environment covers all the outside factors that have acted on the individual since he began life’.

    (Woodworth and Marques, 1948)

    Environment means the aggregate of a complex set of physical, geographical, biological, social, cultural and political conditions that surrounds an individual or organism and eventually determines its appearance as well as nature of its survival.

    Types of Environment

    Environment is practically everything that embraces an organism. Out of all the planets comprising the solar system, the only habitable planet to provide all the necessary conditions for existence of life is the Earth. The physical and chemical environments however varies at places and provides unique conditions for living beings to adapt and survive.

    On the basis of human interference, environment can be categorized as natural, semi-synthetic or artificial.

  • ▄ A natural environmentis inherent, unaltered and not manipulated by man. Life processes and evolution progresses are unhindered in such an environment. However, one does not often find such places in the present day. The core areas of the biosphere reserve are examples of natural ecosystems.

  • ▄ A semi-synthetic environmentis the natural environment that is modified partially by human intervention, namely development of lakes, aquaculture tanks and so on.

  • ▄ An artificial or man-made or synthetic environmentis when the natural environment is deliberately controlled and converted by mankind. For example, aquariums, cities, community parks, paddy fields or the tissue culture laboratories.

  • Preface

  • Mahua Basu, Xavier Savarimuthu, SJ
  • Book:
    Fundamentals of Environmental Studies
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    01 October 2015, pp xi-xii

  • Summary

    Environmental studies is not just another term paper that students are expected to rush through. On the contrary, it is much more potent in its content and its proper understanding will not only help young learners live their lives in the most sustainable manner, but will also help them make a difference and contribute to the reversal of many of the ailments that afflict Mother Earth.

    Our environment, which has been shaped over millennia, is today threatened, primarily because of man's greed and wantonness. Indiscriminate burning of fossil fuels and a mad haste for development over the last three centuries have played havoc with the fragile ecosystems, at places irretrievably. Environmental studies is thus gaining in importance as it not only promises a holistic view of related issues, but is also capable of pointing out human follies and providing answers for a cleaner, greener and more prosperous future world order.

    The paper on which this book is printed, the wooden desk on which you are now studying the book, the electricity that is propelling the ceiling fan, the pen that you are using to take down notes – everything around us has an impact on the world that we live in and therefore on our environment. By understanding what starts the domino effect leading to ultimate consequences for the environment – through Environmental Studies – we can not only strive towards a more sustainable lifestyle locally, but can actually make some difference at the planetary level by capping wastages and ensuring the optimal usage of resources.

    Each drop of positive action taken by every individual will add up – through families, societies, nations – to encompass entire mankind and will one day make up the ocean that will help us restrain, even reverse the wheels of ecological destruction that we ourselves have set in motion. This is precisely why we have stressed and striven to ensure that the students understand the subject, are able to relate the knowledge they gain to the way they live and finally to empower them to be the change they will profess.

    Any textbook can define, dictate and be didactic. Our effort on the contrary is not merely restricted to helping students achieve top grades.

  • 6 - Environmental Pollution

  • Mahua Basu, Xavier Savarimuthu, SJ
  • Book:
    Fundamentals of Environmental Studies
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    01 October 2015, pp 208-269

  • Summary

    Learning objectives

  • ▄ To know about the different aspects of pollution.

  • ▄ To identify the causes of pollution, to realize the impact of pollution and develop a plan for solution and to set up adequate control measures.

  • ▄ To develop public awareness and to elicit collective and individual response to prevent pollution.

  • ▄ To know about real life situations through case studies and arouse sensitivity.

    • Introduction

    Definition

    Pollution can be defined as any undesirable change in the physical, chemical and biological characteristic of air, water or land that may or will harmfully affect human life or that of various species, the industrial processes, living conditions and cultural assets.

    Classification of pollutants

    Generally a pollutant is classified as biodegradable and non-biodegradable. Biodegradable pollutants are those which degrade easily such as sewage, whereas non-biodegradable pollutants are those which either do not degrade or degrade very slowly, such as plastic.

    General source of pollutants

    The sources of pollution caused by man-made actions can be grouped under four categories.

  • ▄ Mobile transport: motor cars, motor bikes, aircrafts, ships, vapourization of gasoline.

  • ▄ Stationary/immobile combustion: domestic, business sources, steam power-driven and thermal power plants.

  • ▄ Factories and industry processes: metal and non-metal extractions, paper and pulp, oil refineries, synthetic chemicals, food processing industries.

  • ▄ Disposal of solid wastes: domestic and mercantile refuse, refuse from coal combustion, burning of agricultural refuse.

    • State of pollution in India

    A Comprehensive Environmental Pollution Index (CEPI) is used to typify the quality of the environment at a particular locality ensuing the source of pollution, their path or conduit and the receiver. CEPI is envisioned to function as an instrument of timely warning. Such a pollution index apprehends the well-being of environmental components like air, water and land in their various dimensions. The CPCB or SPCB or Pollution Control Committees in association with IIT Delhi, had applied Central Environmental Pollution index to 88 specific industrial clusters or areas. Out of 88, 43 were ‘critically polluted’ (with score more than 70 out of 100); 32 were ‘severely polluted’ with scores varying between 60 and 70. In the interim assessment report carried out jointly by CPCB and GPCB, 2012, Vapi ranked first in pollution with a CEPI score of 90.75 out of 100, Angul Talcher ranked second with 89.74, while Vatva and Ankleshwar rank sixth and seventh respectively.

  • 3 - Natural Resources – Water, Land, Forest, Food and Mining

  • Mahua Basu, Xavier Savarimuthu, SJ
  • Book:
    Fundamentals of Environmental Studies
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    01 October 2015, pp 66-111

  • Summary

    Learning objectives

  • ▄ To identify the various issues associated with natural resource and know the ways to ease such problems.

  • ▄ To realize the immense importance of water and land as resources.

  • ▄ To develop a concern about forest resources.

  • ▄ To know about the present practices of food production and mining and also the judicious ways of using them.

  • ▄ To know about these resources in the Indian perspective.

  • ▄ To be able to take in personal efforts and implement equitable use of resources in natural resource management.

    • Natural Resources and Associated Problems

    Growing population:World population is over 7 billion at present. More number of people means more mouths to feed, more crops, more forests to be converted into croplands; more intensive farming, more use of pesticides and fertilizers to boost production and more and more soil deterioration in the long run. A huge amount of water is diverted for irrigation to complement food production and a large number of trees and plants are being cut down for use as fuel and fodder for domestic animals. Human encroachment in forests becomes inevitable. Rapid means of transport and communication depletes natural habitats while rapid urbanization results in severe pollution and health problems.

    Rapid pace of industrialization:Production always occurs in anticipation of demand and ahead of it. Industries are working overtime to feed a growing population's needs without paying any heed to the fact being utilized that are used to feed this demand is finite. Wanton and at times even trivial needs are leading to the diversion of scarce resources which is creating a huge amount of stress on the eco systems of the planet Earth. Industrialization and mass production change our world to such an extent that human consumption has increased in tandem with the ability to produce without adequate thought being given to whether production and consumption of such levels is at all required.

    Uneven distribution of resources:Earth's resources are distributed unevenly. Fossil fuels, minerals, agricultural resources – all show skewed distribution patterns. While development around the pithead – where the resources are mined – is what should have been the natural result, the fact remains that the history of industrialization and economic development is also the story of how these diverse and scattered resources have been tapped by some nations to fuel their growth and prosperity.

Page 47 of 491