The life cycles of Clytia linearis and Clytia noliformis, two common campanulariids previously known solely from their polyp and young medusa stages, were investigated. Adult medusae of C. linearis have a bell diameter of 2·5–3·6 mm, and up to 29 tentacles. The bell is almost flat when relaxed and C-type microbasic mastigophore nematocysts form a cluster at the tip of the tentacles. Mature medusae of C. noliformis have a more hemispherical, saucer-shaped bell (3·5–4·5 mm in diameter), up to 16 tentacles, and no diagnostic nematocysts. Polyps of both species also differ in morphology, colour, and cnidome, and a possible resting structure is described for C. linearis. The relevance of characters from the perisarc and hydranths for taxonomy within the Campanulariidae is also evaluated, and whether the size of nematocysts is variable or not, and therefore appropriate for species identification.

Digital image analysis was applied to quantify the degradation of muscle in sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax (Pisces: Moronidae) larvae. The measure obtained was the percentage muscle fibre separation (MFS). This measurement was compared to that obtained through classical scoring. The percentage MFS classified correctly a larger number of larvae from different feeding treatments (Fed, Starved and Delayed treatments) and paralleled nutritional condition, both by age and by size. It also yielded a significant correlation with the survival of the Starved larvae. The onset of the mass mortality of Starved larvae was used to define a critical value (Mmax) of 6% MFS which would severely handicap survival. We regard MFS as a useful contribution to the determination of condition in fish larvae. It is a relatively fast quantitative method, and its use would reduce the bias caused by discrete grading (scores) and by differences in individual expertise.

Mytilus edulis, Cerastoderma edule and Aequipecten opercularis were found to ingest zooplankton when suspended in mesh cages in the water column in the Firth of Clyde. Zooplankters were also found in the stomachs of bivalves that had been taken directly from their natural habitat. The bivalves consumed a wide range of zooplankton species, but selectively consumed smaller categories of zooplankton present. Condition of zooplankton in the stomachs of the bivalves varied with zooplankton species. A degree of larviphagy was evident, particularly in Mytilus edulis.

A fragment of hedgehog was first isolated by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) from genomic DNA of Qingdao amphioxus using degenerate primers designed according to the conserved sequence in the second exon of hedgehog family. Then RT-PCR and rapid amplification of cDNA ends (3′ and 5′ RACE) were carried out using the mRNA of 18-h neurulae as template. The PCR products were sequenced and constituted a 3540 bp-long hedgehog gene, containing a complete open reading frame. The predicted protein is 415-amino-acids long, showing a high level of identity to other hedgehog proteins. The results show that Qingdao amphioxus contains one and probably only one hedgehog gene. Whole mount in situ hybridization revealed that hedgehog expressed in the prospective notochord, the notochord, floor plate of neural tube and mouth, similarly to its vertebrate homologue Sonic-hedgehog gene. This suggested that amphioxus hedgehog gene might function in the notochord induction to neural tube cells and in the development of the mouth.

Munida subrugosa was sampled monthly from November 1997 to November 1999 in the Beagle Channel by means of an epibenthic trawl. The reproductive cycle started in May, reflected by the occurrence of ovigerous females. Maximum size of oocytes, maximum value of gonadosomatic index in females (16·8 g mm carapace length [CL]−1) and males (1·6 g mm CL−1), and the proportion (∼70%) of ovigerous females with full egg-clutches occurred in June. Since the proportion of ovigerous females in October was ∼5% and the planktonic larvae reportedly hatch in September, the embryonic development lasted ∼90–120 days. Females and males attained physiological maturity at 9·9 and 8·0 mm CL respectively, and males reached morphometric maturity at 24·4 mm CL. Fecundity was correlated with female size (r=0·85) and was between 124 and 10,750 eggs per female. Average diameter of recently extruded eggs was 0·69 mm (SD±0·06 mm). At the beginning of the reproductive cycle, ovigerous females had partial broods of ∼300 eggs, which represented <5% of complete clutch.

Two species of genus Squatina were recorded off the coast of Senegal and Squatina oculata is the most commonly caught in the area. Adult males and females studied were over 820 and 890 mm total length (TL) respectively, with the largest male and the largest female recorded being 1450 mm and 1570 mm and weighed 37 kg and 39 kg respectively. The females were significantly heavier than the males. Size at birth was between 226 and 266 mm and weight at birth between 129 and 159 g. Weight of ripe oocytes ranged from 87·65 to 117·60 g (mean SD 101·73±&;8·65). Gestation lasts one year minimum. Squatina oculata is a lecithotrophic species. Counts of ripe oocytes, eggs, embryos and fully developed foetuses showed that ovarian fecundity is significantly higher than uterine fecundity. The former ranged from 8 to 20 (mean SD 12·04±5·80), the latter from 3 to 8 (mean SD 6·22±3·41). There is no relationship between size and the categories of fecundity. Adult males and females were more common than the other categories of specimens landed. Among adults, females were more numerous than males, mainly gravid specimens.

This study was conducted between January and December 1995 at Armação do Itapocoroy, Penha, Santa Catarina, southern Brazil. Monthly samples were carried out in the morning, afternoon, and evening using two over-trawls with 6 m at the opening, 3·0-cm mesh at the outer part and 2·0-cm mesh in the bag. Dardanus insignis was collected year round but with higher densities in September and October. The hermit crabs were more abundant during the evening than the afternoon but no differences were recorded between morning and both evening and afternoon. Females were slightly more abundant than males but the sex ratio did not differ from 1:1. Females were more abundant in the smallest size-classes (<1·8 cm) while males outnumbered females in the largest ones (>2·2 cm). The individuals of this population of D. insignis have a mean cephalothoracic length of 1·89±0·40 cm (range 1·00 to 3·90 cm) and a mean weight of 40·26±27·06 g. The size distribution showed an unimodal pattern, with males being larger than ovigerous females, which, in turn, were larger than non-ovigerous females. Dardanus insignis showed a seasonal reproductive pattern with a peak from September to November and complete absence of ovigerous females from April to August. The von Bertalanffy growth function (VBGF) with temporal oscillation fitted for this population of D. insignis had the following parameters: L∞=4·40 cm, K=0·60, C=0·95, WP=0·35. Recruitment was estimated to start in September and was extended to the following months. Estimates of longevity ranged from 20 to 62 months. A mortality rate of 2·21 was estimated based on the length converted catch curve. The cephalothoracic length of males and females showed, respectively, positive and negative allometry with both cephalothoracic width and crab weight.

Otolith microstructure of the Russian sturgeon, Acipenser gueldenstadti was examined in adult samples collected in the Caspian Sea. The microstructure of the otolith was the same among specimens. The anterior side of the sagitta grew in two directions elongating both the long and short arms, and the long arm sections exhibited 14–21 distinct translucent and opaque zones. Otolith increments in this species can be used for age determination.

Indicator bacteria and Salmonella spp. were investigated in both Chamelea gallina and seawater from six stations on the coastline of Sile, Turkey. Studies were carried out on 15 days from June to December in 1998–1999. Chamelea gallina samples which were collected at approximately 5–10 metres depth from the chosen stations were examined for faecal coliform, Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. Bacteria numbers were highest in July and August. Bacteria distribution was found to be statistically significant between stations. No Salmonella spp. were detected in the samples.

The effect of algal food concentration, substratum, light, salinity, cyprid density and ‘footprints’, cyprid age, films of organic biopolymers, bacteria and diatoms on the settlement of Balanus reticulatus cyprids were studied. The algal food quantity (from 7×104 to 4×105 cells ml−1) fed to nauplii had a significant effect on the settlement. Cyprids failed to settle on glass surfaces but would settle on polystyrene. Light, cyprid ‘footprints’ and age significantly affected the settlement, however, salinity (from 20 to 40 psu) and cyprid density (from 5 to 200 per 5 ml of seawater) had no effect on the settlement. Films of organic polymers, bacteria, and diatoms inhibited the settlement compared to control. It is suggested that cyprids of B. reticulatus can serve as an appropriate test material for antifouling bioassays in those areas where the former forms a dominant species.

Male and female sharknose cleaning gobies Elacatinus evelynae (Gobiidae) occupying cleaning stations in monogamous pairs differed significantly in cleaning behaviour and diet. Females spent five times longer cleaning, took more bites from clients, engaged in more cleaning events on more client species, and cleaned at a higher rate than males. These behavioural differences tended to be reflected in the diet, with more females ingesting more client-gleaned items than males. These results are consistent with greater energetic requirements for reproduction for females. Male cleaning gobies were frequently absent from cleaning stations, presumably guarding eggs, and their presence at cleaning stations gave rise to foraging conflicts and interactions with females. The cleaning rate of females was significantly lowered by the presence of males, whether cleaning or not, whereas males cleaned for longer and took more bites when females were present. When cleaning the same client, males and females showed priority of first inspection, with females cleaning longer and taking more bites in cleaning events they initiated while males gained similar advantages in client- and male-initiated interactions. Furthermore, females initiated cleaning on larger clients, which may give them a foraging priority on a higher-quality resource since larger clients tend to have more ectoparasites. Finally, from a client's perspective, the cleaning service provided appears better in terms of length of inspection and bites taken when both males and females are at a cleaning station than when a single cleaner is present. However, the foraging differences and interactions between male and female cleaning gobies are of little consequence to clients since the cleaning service provided is simply reapportioned between males and females rather than changed by the interactions between gobies.

Five of 26 flathead mullet (Mugil cephalus) captured in the Seekoei River estuary in South Africa showed haemogregarine infections. Both trophozoites and gamonts were observed, and image analysis technology was used in parasite morphometric description. Gamonts were compared with those of Desseria mugili from Brazil and found to be different. The parasite mostly closely matched a haemogregarine previously illustrated, but not described from South Africa, and apparent lack of merogony suggested that it was a species of Desseria.

An undescribed species of the genus Didemnum (Didemnidae) reported from installations in Whangamata Harbour (Coromandel Peninsula), has a unique and conspicuous three-dimensional growth form (possibly associated with vertical and undersurfaces it occupies). It is also distinguished by a combination of the few characters available to define these small, simplified, convergent organisms. Its stellate spicules are sparse except for a patchy layer in the surface test, primary common cloacal canals are the full depth of the zooids, nine vas deferens coils surround the testis, the gut is long forming a double loop, and larvae have six pairs of ectodermal ampullae. Eleven species said to belong to this genus have previously been reported from New Zealand, but only six are valid Didemnum spp., and they all are distinguished readily from the present species. Nevertheless, there is no evidence that the new species is introduced, and the simplest explanation of it occurrence is that it is part of the little known indigenous didemnid fauna of New Zealand.

To elucidate the sulphur sources for chemoautotrophy by the symbiotic bacteria of a vestimentiferan tubeworm, Lamellibrachia satsuma, living in Kagoshima Bay at depths of 80–100 m, we analysed the sulphur isotopic ratios of the animal tissues and compared them with environmental sulphur species collected in the field. Animals that had been maintained in an aquarium for over a year and supplied a known sulphur source were also investigated. The gas emitted from volcanic source in Kagoshima Bay contained rather heavy sulphide (+12·7 to +22·9‰ δ34S) compared with deep-sea hydrothermal vent systems (0 to +5‰). The tissue of the tubeworms contained very light sulphide (−21·5 to −25·9‰). It is inferred from the analysis of the aquarium-maintained specimens that the fractionation by the tubeworm or its symbiont was <1·5‰. The sulphur source assimilated by the tubeworms in the field is therefore inferred to have δ ratio −19·1 to −24·6‰. This means that only 9·7 to 25·0% of the sulphur in the worm tissues can be derived from the volcanic gas and the rest must come from other sources, such as microbial activity in the bottom sediment.

Statolith validation and age and growth analysis was undertaken for the loliginid squid Loligo plei in the north-west Gulf of Mexico off Galveston, Texas. Statolith increments were shown to be laid down daily based on tetracycline staining of 19 individuals maintained in captivity. Ageing of field-captured individuals from late summer revealed that this species has rapid growth rates and a life span of about five months at least during the warm period of the year in this region of the Gulf of Mexico.

The location and orientation of epizooic barnacles on the surface of their host is crucially important to the survival and growth of the animal and is determined at the time of settlement by the cyprid larva. The present study examines the location and orientation of Chelonibia patula barnacles on the upper surface of the carapace of the crab Portunus pelagicus from the Mediterrannean coast of Israel. Cirral activity behaviour patterns, such as turning angles of the cirral fan, types of cirral motion, and beat duration were determined with respect to the angular deviation of the rostro-carinal axis (RCA) of the barnacles from the direction of the incoming flow. While small barnacles (up to 1 cm rostro-carinal length) perform normal feeding beats and turn the cirral fan towards the incoming flow at all angles up to 180°, larger barnacles (>1 cm rostro-carinal length) do not extend their cirri when oriented at RCA angles exceeding 120°. Nearly all the sampled barnacles are oriented on the carapace at RCA angles of no more than 120° with respect to the anterior margin of the host crab, which is the predominant direction of incoming flow and food. It is concluded that larval choice of orientation at settlement is determined according to the direction of the current and the anticipated food-gathering ability of the adult barnacle.

Marine representatives of the phylum Gastrotricha are reported for the first time from the State of New Jersey, USA. Littoral and shallow sublittoral sediment collected at Ship Bottom on Long Beach Island, near Atlantic City, yielded 11 species belonging to eight genera in six families in the orders Macrodasyida (four genera in three families) and Chaetonotida (four genera in three families). Littoral samples were richer than the one sublittoral sample (7 vs 4 spp.). Among the taxa was a large, undescribed species of Tetranchyroderma characterized by the following key traits: total body length up to 605 μm; cuticular covering complete, made up of pentancres; a pair of cephalic tentacles; dorsal adhesive tubes arranged in dorsal and dorsolateral columns; a pair of ventral adhesive tubes arising from a common base, near the perigenital area only on the right side; peculiar cuticular openings ‘stomata’ along the ventrolateral margins of the body; protogynous hermaphroditism. Tetranchyroderma weissi sp. nov. is, at least in the investigated location, restricted to the sediment layers below 20 cm of the intertidal zone, and is able to live in thiobiotic sediment. A key to the described species of the world based on easily discernible traits, visible in both living and formalin-fixed specimens is provided.

Ichthyoplankton from an area in the Celtic Sea was studied to provide an insight into the fish larval community structure in March, May and June 1998. Three station groups were defined each month, Neritic, Transition and Oceanic. The Neritic assemblages included larval stages of coastal fish species and the Oceanic assemblages included mesopelagic and high-oceanic fish species which were not recorded from any of the Neritic stations. The Transition stations usually contained species characteristic of both the Neritic and Oceanic assemblages. It is suggested that these broad patterns of larval fish distributions are constant features of the Celtic Sea area, probably related to the spawning location of the adults. The area is, in general, species poor, with the Oceanic stations usually dominated by a single species, indicating the presence of a large spawning school of fish.

The feeding habits of Polyacanthonotus rissoanus, the sixth most abundant species below 1000 m on the deep slope of the Catalan Sea (western Mediterranean), were studied in the Mediterranean Sea. Samples were obtained at depths between 1000 and 2250 m. Diet was analysed for two seasons (summer and autumn) and three different bathymetric strata. The most important food items found were small epibenthic and suprabenthic crustaceans and polychaetes, and occasionally other groups such as Priapulida, Gastropoda and Foraminifera. At 1000–1425 m, the mysids were preferential prey, while in summer at all depths analysed, isopods were a dominant prey. Polychaetes have certain incidence in the diet only at 1000–1425 m, being a dominant prey in autumn. Individuals at the 1000–1425 m depth ingest larger numbers of prey of higher average sizes than those at 1425–2250 m. The scarcity of resources below 1200–1400 m resulted in diversification of diet and encouraged preying on deposited foraminiferans, molluscs or moving copepods.

This study examined two types of muscle fibre, associated with entirely different tasks in the cyprid of Balanus amphitrite (Crustacea: Cirripedia), and detected a striking difference. The first fibre type is found in the antennulary system, which is used for selecting the most suitable substrate for continuance of the cirripede life cycle. The second fibre type is associated with the stereotyped swimming behaviour of the cyprid. The antennulary fibres have the characteristics of ‘slow’ fibres, whereas the thoracic fibres display the properties of ‘fast’ muscle fibres. The difference between the thoracic and antennulary muscles emphasizes the specialized morphology of the cirripede cyprid linked to their unique role in settlement.