Note It is assumed that: Dr Jones is the organizer of the meeting; Dr Fernandez is coeditor of the proceedings. Mrs Smith has been involved in the preparations of the meeting and is thoroughly familiar with details; she is now in charge of the registration desk and related organizational details. Drs Black (chairman), Brown, Green and White are members of the local committee. Dr Black and his local committee are cooperative, and they have recruited assistants (graduate students).

The arrival times of most participants at the airport are known and reflected in the schedule. Shuttle buses have been hired for the peak hours.

The following examples are modified excerpts from a staff schedule of an international symposium.

During the week before the symposium

1. (A) Check the bank accounts so that payments to hotels and other parties can be made (Drs Fernandez and Jones, Mrs Smith).

2. (B) Alert the hotels to have sufficient change for the symposium participants (Mrs Smith).

3. (C) Alert the hotel receptions to have information on car rentals, theaters, casinos and golf courses (Dr Black).

4. (D) Arrange with the congress hotel details of the welcome party (Drs Black and Jones, Mrs Smith).

5. (E) Arrange details of the delivery of projectors, flip-charts and other equipment with supplier (Drs Black and White).

6. (F) Provide for the poster areas: (1) push pins (9000); (2) heavy tape; (3) scissors; (4) individual numbers 1–1000 (on paper or cardboard 10 × 10 centimeters) for poster boards (Dr White and one assistant).

7. (G) Prepare 600 lists of participants (with addresses), to be included in the portfolios (Mrs Smith and two assistants).

The following listing contains points to consider when negotiating with an exposition service. In this example, it is assumed that the executive officer of a scientific society is conducting the negotiations, and that the society: (a) has unrestricted control over the exhibition area; (b) has prepared an information kit for exhibitors; (c) expects considerable interest by exhibitors (e.g., publishers, technological firms); and (d) has a list of its regular exhibitors available. Note that it would require considerable effort to organize major exhibitions if your meeting is not of the regular, annual type; and furthermore, that you would need expert advice on the organizational and financial aspects.

1. The Society will provide an exhibitor service kit, and the Service will provide the necessary forms for inclusion in the exhibitor service kit. These forms have to be approved by the Society. They will contain pertinent information on shipping requirements, instructions for installation and dismantling, and on other available services.

2. The Service will mail this information to prospective exhibitors upon receipt of a list from the Society, and thereafter whenever requested.

3. The Service and the Society will jointly develop rules and regulations for the exhibitions.

4. The Service will provide a draft of the floor plan, tailored to the Society's specific requirements. Upon approval by the Executive Officer of the Society, the Service will prepare a final plan, complete in every detail, and suitable for reproduction.

5. The Service will provide the labor and decorating equipment to lay out the floor.

6. The Service will install, maintain and dismantle the required number of exhibit booths. The precise dimensions of these booths must be approved by the Executive Secretary of the Society.

7. […]

Scheduling and options

Minimeetings

Next to the quality of the presentations, the social events will decide the success of a scientific meeting. If a meeting lasts only for one half or a full day, extended coffee and/or lunch breaks should provide an opportunity for informal mixing of the participants. This is particularly important in a city where people flee to their suburban homes at 5 pm. Nevertheless, you may find some time for post-symposium drinks. Under more relaxed conditions, you may be able to arrange a seated dinner, or a catered buffet for some of the local participants and out-of-town speakers who are staying overnight.

Meetings of longer duration

If a meeting with out-of-town participants extends into a second day, the evening of the first day should be reserved for a social event. In most cases, an all-evening party with a buffet and a selection of beverages will be perfect. If costs are a problem, tickets for food and/or drinks can be sold.

For meetings lasting three or more days, an informal reception or welcome party on the first evening and a major social event on a later evening are generally expected. There are two schools of thought concerning the timing of the major event. Some people prefer to have it on the last evening; others would like to have it earlier because they intend to leave during the afternoon or evening of the last day. For the benefit of the tired organizer and his staff, and of all participants who hate morning sessions after a long festivity, the major event would best be scheduled for the last day.

Logic suggests that in the daily program demanding presentations (especially major lectures) should precede entertaining and interactive events. This translates to the following order: Plenary Lectures, State-of-the-Art Lectures, Short Communications, Colloquia and Workshops, Poster Sessions, Forums, Business Meetings. However, in practice modifications are usually necessary. During the first day of the meeting, a welcome speech or Welcome Ceremony will precede the daily program. On other days, special interest breakfasts may precede the sessions. Special interest luncheons may be held during one or more noon breaks. In the afternoons, Colloquia may be scheduled so that data shown in preceding Poster Sessions can be discussed. A Closing Lecture will obviously be the last scientific event of the meeting; however, it is debatable if it should be given before or after the Business Session, if the latter is held during the last day of the meeting (see Section 3.2).

There are some frequently ignored rules:

The first one states: ‘The more time for interactive events, the better.’ Even at the smallest conference, there should be a time slot for informal discussions between participants. An afternoon consisting of four one-hour lectures followed by the immediate departure of the speakers is very unsatisfactory.

The second rule is equally important: ‘Don't overload your program.’ Unless local (geographic, climatic or transportation) conditions make a different schedule advisable, do not start the sessions before 9 am. At meetings of longer duration, have lunch and evening breaks lasting at least 90 minutes. This is particularly important at international meetings with participants from different time zones.

A third rule also expresses common sense: ‘During parallel sessions, avoid overlap of topics as much as possible.’

Example of a checklist for the first day of a major meeting with parallel sessions.

Monday, May 15, 1989

1. (A) Morning

1. (1) Four slide projectors for use, two spares; four extension cords; two spare bulbs.

2. (2) Four supports for projectors.

3. (3) Four wireless pointers, two spares.

4. (4) Four screens of adequate size (check rooms).

5. (5) Four wireless microphones, two spares.

6. (6) Four podiums with lights (plus spare bulbs).

7. (7) Reserved seats (front row) for speakers and special guests of the opening ceremony.

1. (B) Afternoon

1. (1) Five slide projectors for use, one spare; five extension cords; two spare bulbs.

2. (2) Five supports for projectors.

3. (3) Five pointers for use, one spare.

4. (4) Five screens (check fifth screen for adequate size).

5. (5) Two overhead projectors (for Colloquia).

6. (6) One hundred poster boards with running numbers in upper right corner.

7. (7) 9000 push pins for posters.

8. (8) Five wireless microphones, one spare.

9. (9) Five podiums with lights (plus spare bulbs).

1. (C) Evening

2. Four flip-charts and markers.

1. The colloquium will begin with an introduction of the panelists by the moderator, followed by a sequence of brief presentations by the moderator and the panelists. Thereafter, the panelists will have the privilege of asking each other questions before the general audience is invited to join in.

2. The total time allowed for the colloquium is 100 minutes (17 : 00–18 : 40); of which, each panelist will be entitled to 10 minutes of presentation, if he wishes to make one. However, if a panelist prefers to make no formal presentation, he/she will be given an equivalent amount of time for questions to the other panelists immediately following the formal presentations.

3. The presentations are not supposed to be lengthy ego trips (though slides and/or an overhead projector may be used, if necessary); rather, they should be a means to make an important point for discussion. Mutual challenges in a congenial atmosphere are encouraged. At the end of the Colloquium, the moderator will summarize the results, i.e., agreements, disagreements, and open or new questions.

Satellite symposia can save travel funds for both the main and satellite meetings. On the other hand, they may create problems for the organizer of the main meeting. To avoid this, satellite symposia lasting longer than one day should only be permitted under the following conditions:

1. They are held after the main meeting.

2. They do not compete for funds with the main meeting.

3. Their presentations are coordinated with those of the main meeting.

4. Their budgets are kept separate.

5. Travel support for participants of both meetings is coordinated.

The first condition is based on the experience that: (a) most people feel tired after several days of scientific discussions; and (b) a specialized meeting still attracts a good audience when the general interest is waning. If a general meeting follows a specialized symposium, the chances are that tired participants will either leave early, or spend more time in the hallways than in lecture rooms. And you, the organizer, will cringe at these ‘lobby lizards’ when the audience in some sessions drops to an embarrassing low.

On the other hand, a conference dealing with a topic directly relating to one's research has an enlivening effect, provided there is a chance for discussion, and not just another barrage of talks. Thus, a well-conceived satellite symposium should not suffer from a preceding main event. A good satellite symposium will provide opportunities for personal interaction, such as Workshops, Round Table Discussions with participation of the audience, and Poster Sessions.

The second condition is self-evident, but all too often ignored. An extreme case should make the point.

Dear Colleagues,

Enclosed with this note you will find the preliminary list of prospective participants in your workshop.

Undoubtedly further changes and additions will be requested; in particular, I foresee that some of you may wish to add participants to the list for your Workshop. You are welcome to do so, provided: (a) this person has agreed to participate; and (b) the person has registered, or will pay the fee for delayed registration upon arrival at the meeting. However, after February 15, it will be too late to add names to the printed program since the latter will then go press.

If questions concerning fees should arise, please make it clear to prospective late registrants that there will be no discount bargaining; in fairness to other participants, we must insist on the full payment for delayed registration.

I would like to emphasize that it is not necessary (and for time's sake not even desirable) that the participants introduce themselves with more than a few remarks on their research interests. After all, they should have submitted their ‘statement of research interest’ to you, and everybody should have had time to read the ‘statements’ of the other participants.

When you contact the participants of your Workshop, please include the sample of a ‘statement’ in your mailing.

Mini-Machiavellian management

Making and breaking of committees

According to an old adage, the camel is a horse designed by a committee. It may be difficult to express better the feelings of many people who have had to deal with committees.

Before you consider working with committees recall that, in general, they serve one of four functions: (1) to come up with something useful; (2) never to produce anything of consequence; (3) to fulfill a requirement without making waves; (4) to hide foregone conclusions behind a collection of yes-men.

The first type of committee is often set up, and may even deliver something meaningful. It requires qualified and cooperative members, and it functions best when chaired by an enlightened dictator.

The second type is useful when a problem requires benign neglect. The more members it has, the less likely it is to come up with something serious. Committees of the third type often exist in the form of editorial boards for the conference, or they advise on tantalizing matters such as ceremonies and protocol.

The last type of committee may better be termed ‘pseudocommittees.’ Usually, they are ad hoc collections of friends, or people who depend on the grace of the chair.

Someone experienced in dealing with committees will probably subscribe to the following rules:

1. Never set up a committee unless and before it is necessary.

2. Select committee members very carefully choosing persons who genuinely will participate and are qualified to do so.

3. If a committee is meant to function, keep it as small as possible, but as large as necessary.

4. If a committee does not function, dissolve it.

General considerations

In the selection of a meeting place, the odds for a mishap are probably greater than in Russian roulette, and they grow with the naiveté and/or laziness of the organizers). To avoid major mistakes, it pays to make thorough inquiries about potential meeting sites. The more information you can get, the better. Ask both organizers and participants of recent meetings. Why also ask participants? Because organizers often remain unaware of serious flaws; and, on the other hand, they may be reluctant to admit major mistakes. Of course, the best recommendation for a meeting place is when it is used year after year by the same scientific societies.

Never trust a hotel or meeting facility without a written contract. If they refuse to sign one that is to your satisfaction, thank them for the warning and go elsewhere. Scientists typically totally underestimate the tricks of the convention trade. The example of a contract in Appendix I gives you some idea of what a skillful negotiator can obtain for a major meeting.

Whenever possible, prepare a list of questions and contact by phone the organizer of a previous conference at your envisioned meeting site. Perhaps, you can persuade him to send you copies of his contract(s). If his meeting included exhibitions, also ask about contracts with the decorator and exhibition service (see Section 3.4). Ask the managements of the hotel and meeting site for copies of contracts with previous organizations. Their reactions may be revealing.

Why is a written, legally binding contract so important? The following experience will answer that question.

When I organized a major international meeting, I made oral arrangements with the manager of the congress hotel.

Stellar clusters occupy a central position in research aimed at the structure and the evolution of our Galaxy and of those of our neighbours in which clusters can be identified. Often the integrated cluster properties, magnitudes, colours, spectra, are the only ones within reach. In the Magellanic Clouds most of the clusters can be sufficiently resolved for the investigation of individual members by photometry and spectroscopy even if the stars in the cores in some cases are too crowded for ground-based observations. As the clusters have a range of age that covers the whole lifetime of the Clouds, this should permit the study of the complete evolution of the Clouds. En route, a number of steps have to be taken. It is necessary to determine their distances, ages, and metallicities, and, before these, their reddening. The latter is difficult to determine for an individual cluster without knowledge of its physical properties, and is, therefore, frequently assumed known. As the reddening is small over most of the Clouds (see Chap. 2), the astronomer may feel entitled to use any low value recommended in one survey or another. However, even a small error in the colour excess, EB-V, may have noticeable effects on the other quantities. Also the distance to the cluster, i.e. to a particular part of the SMC or the LMC, is frequently assumed known or determined by isochrone fittings: isochrones for different compositions and ages are fitted to the main sequences (MSs) and/or the red-giant branches (RGBs) in the colour–magnitude diagrams (CMDs) and the best fitting one is accepted as defining the cluster properties.

The concentrations of luminous, blue stars in the Magellanic Clouds have attracted much attention. Shapley (1956) noted that the large gaseous nebulae in the LMC are frequently associated with groups of stars but also that some of the larger star groups are free of conspicuous nebulosity. As these stellar aggregations were too large to be called clusters or associations in the sense used in our Galaxy he called them ‘Constellations’. He estimated their diameters to be between 250 and 600 pc and their content of blue supergiants, with a red magnitude brighter than 14.0, to be between 14 and 32. A few red supergiant stars were seen in each of them. In the region of 30 Doradus, Shapley (1955) identified a number of red stars by comparing blue (B) and infrared (I) plates and concluded that the very red stars were of spectral class M0 or later. Only two of the 21 most luminous of these stars are in the vicinity of the core of 30 Doradus.

In the SMC Shapley found only one object rich enough to be called a constellation in the sense used for the LMC. It is the aggregate comprising NGC 456, NGC460 and NGC 465 in the Wing area.

Shapley's designation is still used to identify the five most conspicuous stellar aggregates in the LMC. Improved techniques have extended and redefined them and led to the identification of more such formations.

The Magellanic Clouds have been known for thousands of years to the inhabitants of the southern hemisphere. The natives on the South Sea Islands called them the Upper and Lower Clouds of Mist. The Australian aborigines, who referred to the Milky Way as a river or track along which the spirits travelled to the sky-world, considered the Magellanic Clouds as two great black men who sometimes came down to the earth and choked people while they were asleep (McCarthy 1956, p.130). Al Sufi, in his description of the stellar constellations from the 10th century, told about a strange object, A1 Bakr, the White Ox, which is now identified as the Large Magellanic Cloud. Many of the mariners of the Middle Ages noticed the two Clouds. The Italian Corsali described them: ‘We saw two clouds of significant size which move regularly around the pole in a circular course, sometimes going up and sometimes down, with a star midway between them at a distance of 11 degrees from the pole and participating in their movements.’

The two objects were called the Cape Clouds for hundreds of years; they were the most striking objects appearing in the sky when ships approached the Cape of Good Hope. They were of importance for the navigators of that time for localizing the South Pole, where there is no star corresponding to Polaris in the North (see Allen 1980).

It is essential for our understanding of the evolution of the Magellanic System, comprising the LMC and the SMC, the InterCloud (IC) or Bridge region and the Magellanic Stream, to know the motions of its members in the past. The Clouds have a common envelope of neutral hydrogen. This indicates that they have been bound to each other for a long time. It is generally assumed, but not definitely proven, that the Clouds have also been bound to our Galaxy for at least the last 7 Gyr. Most models assume that the Clouds lead the Magellanic Stream. The Magellanic System moves in the gravitational potential of our Galaxy and in the plane defined by the Local Group It is also exposed to ram pressure through its movement in the galactic halo. The influence of our Galaxy ought to be noticeable in the present structure and kinematics of the System.

The interaction between the Clouds has influenced their structure and kinematics severely. It should be possible to trace the effects as pronounced disturbances in the motions of their stellar and gaseous components. Recent astrometric contributions in this field show great promise for the future if still higher accuracy can be achieved. It should be kept in mind in all analyses that results of interactions may be expected everywhere.

Interest in the Magellanic Clouds has grown tremendously over the past four decades. During this period they have been exposed to investigations, interpretations, and speculations with regard to their origin, evolution, structure and content. At times, they have been viewed as more spectacular than they perhaps really are, e.g. suggested to have supermassive stars and peculiar structures; at other times they have been wished far away. Shapley once said (in Galaxies, Harvard University Press, most recent edition 1973, ed. P.W. Hodge) that ‘The Astronomy of galaxies would probably have been ahead by a generation, perhaps by 50 years, if Chance, or Fate, or whatever it is that fixes things as they are had put a typical spiral and a typical elliptical galaxy in the positions now occupied by the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds…. But we must make the best of what we have, and it will soon appear that the best is indeed good. It's marvelous.’ This has indeed been shown to be true. The two irregulars, which differ in so many aspects from our Galaxy, have in particular shown their value as two excellent astrophysical laboratories near at hand.

The study of the Magellanic Clouds has in many ways become more ‘galactic’ than ‘extragalactic’. It is therefore equally impossible to cover all Magellanic Cloud research in detail in one monograph as it would be for our Galaxy.