The classical theory of the interaction of light with the electron clouds of atoms and molecules will be discussed in this chapter. The discussion will begin with the interaction of a steady electric field with a collection of point charges, leading to the development of terms describing the electric dipole and quadrupole moments. The classical Lorentz model is then introduced to describe interaction of an oscillating electric field with the electron cloud of an atom, and the concepts of absorption and emission are introduced. The propagation of a light wave through a medium with electric dipoles is then discussed. Finally, the classical theory of radiation from an oscillating dipole is discussed.

Conjugated polymers are semiconductors, which if doped can become conducting. Their electronic properties make them suitable for use in organic electronic devices such as transistors (OTFTs), light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) and solar cells (OPVs). The operating principles of these devices are discussed. Each of these devices have different requirements for their active materials. Among the important parameters which must be considered to optimise device performance are the energy difference between the Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital (HOMO) and the Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital (LUMO) (known as the bandgap) which controls which colours of light can be absorbed or emitted, the energy levels of the HOMO and LUMO, which control the rate at which charges can be injected and extracted and the mobility of the charge carriers within the material. These parameters must be considered in designing or selecting suitable materials for use in these devices.

This first chapter gives an introduction to the book and guides the reader through much of the history of the field of quantum mechanics, focusing on what we view as the most important episodes in the field. We discuss the essential properties of quantum mechanics and how they have been reimagined in the decades that followed the era of the founders.

Quantum cascade lasers are based on Intersubband transitions between quantum confined states in semiconductor heterostructures. The origin of these states is briefly described in this chapter starting with linear combination of atomic orbitals and then proceeding to the k.P theory. The relations between the interband and Intersubband transitions including their oscillator strength and selection rules are established. It is shown that “giant” Intersubband dipole owes its existence to the confinement induced band mixing. Aside from the radiative Intersubband transitions investigated in this chapter, nonradiative transitions also play important roles in QCL operation, hence most relevant of these processes: electron phonon, electron-electron, interface roughness and alloy disorder are also described in detail.

In this chapter we provide an overview of data modeling and describe the formulation of probabilistic models. We introduce random variables, their probability distributions, associated probability densities, examples of common densities, and the fundamental theorem of simulation to draw samples from discrete or continuous probability distributions. We then present the mathematical machinery required in describing and handling probabilistic models, including models with complex variable dependencies. In doing so, we introduce the concepts of joint, conditional, and marginal probability distributions, marginalization, and ancestral sampling.

This chapter provides an introduction to the subject known as gradient-index optics. In Section 1.1, we present a historical perspective on this subject before introducing the essential concepts needed in later chapters. Section 1.2 is devoted to various types of refractive-index profiles employed for making gradient index devices, with particular emphasis to the parabolic index profile because of its practical importance. In Section 1.3, we discuss the relevant properties of such devices such as optical losses, chromatic dispersion, and intensity dependence of the refractive index occurring at high power levels. The focus of Section 1.4 is on the materials and the techniques used for fabricating gradient-index devices in the form of a rod or a thin fiber

Experimental chapter that presents experimental devices that allow us to detect individual quantum systems and observe quantum jumps occurring at random times. Described: superconducting single photon detectors, detection of arrays of ions and atoms, the shelving technique that allows us to measure the quantum state of the single atom, state selective field ionization of single Rydberg atoms, detection of single molecules on a surface by confocal microscopy, articial atoms in circuit quantum electrodynamics (cQED)

After a discussion of best programming practices and a brief summary of basic features of the Python programming language, chapter 1 discusses several modern idioms. These include the use of list comprehensions, dictionaries, the for-else idiom, as well as other ways to iterate Pythonically. Throughout, the focus is on programming in a way which feels natural, i.e., working with the language (as opposed to working against the language). The chapter also includes basic information on how to make figures using Matplotlib, as well as advice on how to effectively use the NumPy library, with an emphasis on slicing, vectorization, and broadcasting. The chapter is rounded out by a physics project, which studies the visualization of electric fields, and a problem set.

We discuss the breakdown of classical theory in relation to phenomena on the nanoscale. The historical discovery of the wave nature of electrons in the Davisson–Germer Experiment is reviewed. We present the puzzling experimental data and its explanation in terms of particle diffraction, which contradicts classical mechanics. The quantitative success of de Broglie’s formula in associating particle momenta with a wavelength is demonstrated. Analyzing the conditions in which the wave nature of particles becomes apparent, namely, the condition for correspondence between the de Broglie wavelength and the lattice from which the particles are diffracted, we draw some general conclusions. Particularly, by translating to de Broglie wavelengths the particle masses and energy values that are typical to materials and processes on the nanoscales, one immediately realizes that wave properties are expected to be dominant. Quantum mechanics is therefore essential for a proper description of nanoscale phenomena.

Chapter 1 sets out the conceptual framework through which the book examines research evaluation and names the key players and processes involved. It begins by outlining The Evaluation Game’s key contention that research evaluation is a manifestation of a broader technology which the book refers to as “evaluative power.” Next, it describes how the evaluative power comes to be legitimized and how it introduces one of its main technologies: research evaluation systems. The chapter then defines games as top-down social practices and, on the basis of this conceptual framework, presents the evaluation game as a reaction to or resistance against the evaluative power. Overall, the chapter shows how the evaluation of both institutions and knowledge produced by researchers working in them have, unavoidably, become an integral element of the research process itself.

This chapter contains Gaussian optics and employs a matrix formalism to describe optical image formation through light rays. In optics, a ray is an idealized model of light. However, in a subsequent chapter, we will also see a matrix formalism can also be used to describe, for example, a Gaussian laser beam under diffraction through the wave optics approach. The advantage of the matrix formalism is that any ray can be tracked during its propagation though the optical system by successive matrix multiplications, which can be easily programmed on a computer. This is a powerful technique and is widely used in the design of optical element. In this chapter, some of the important concepts in resolution, depth of focus, and depth of field are also considered based on the ray approach.

Crystal, lattices and cells; Bravais lattice; the reciprocal lattice; electrons in a periodic crystal: Bloch’s theorem; momentum of an electron in a periodic crystal; effective mass; electrons and holes in a semiconductor; calculation of the band structure: tight-binding method and k·p method; bandstructure of Si, GaAs and GaN.

This chapter is the introduction to this book, its motivation and its design and how it can be applied to the design of undergraduate and graduate courses on quantum optics and superconducting quantum circuits.

An introduction to the most important liquid crystal types and their physical properties and applications, that could also serve as a self-contained undergraduate course. Examples of the chemical structures of mesogens, i.e. molecules yielding the various liquid crystals phases, are given, providing a preliminary information needed for modelling and simulation.

Chapter 1 is an introduction, reviewing the current state of instructional texts on atmospheric lidar. We point to the lack of a treatment of light scattering as employed by lidar from fundamental physics, the motivation for writing this book. We then summarize the scattering processes, Rayleigh, Raman, Mie, and fluorescence, that enable us to probe the state of the atmosphere with lidar. We include a description of the structure and content of the chapters that follow.

The structure of spacetime deduced from its observed symmetries.

The purpose of this chapter is to set up the framework on which the book will be shaped up and it is intentionally based on informal descriptions of concepts. This is obviously a nonrigorous approach but is a fundamental step toward an abstraction process about artificial sensing: what are the ideas behind the general definition of sensors, their main performance limiting processes and essential tradeoffs. Using this inductive approach, we will first define concepts, leaving the formalization to the next chapters of the book. However, if the reader is facing this field for the first time, the argumentation could appear vague and fuzzy; therefore this first chapter should be read again after the rest of the book as the last one.