The word BIBLIOGRAPHY comes from the Greek bibliographia. meaning book-writing.

The pioneer bibliographer, Johannes Tritheim, a cloistered monk, published his Liber de scriptoribus ecclesiasticis. Basle: Amberbach 1494. 300p. It is the first bio-bibliography (and a select, national bibliography) recording about 7,000 titles by about 1,000 medieval authors; arranged in chronological order, with a short account of each, followed by a list of their writings, and supplemented with an author index (by Christian names). This catalogue of ecclesiastical writers was used by Konrad Gesner in his Bibliotheca universalis, etc. Tiguri [Zürich] Froschauer 1545-55. v.1-3 and Appendix. About 2,600p. This work was the most notable early attempt at an universal bibliography, covering about 15,000 titles in Greek, Latin, and Hebrew, by about 3,000 authors. (Note that some 40,000 incunabula have survived). The arrangement is alphabetical, likewise by Christian names, and is provided with author and subject indexes.

1678 Sir James Murray gives four meanings to the word Bibliography: 1. The writing of books. First so used in 1678 by J. Phillips; 2. The systematic description and history of books, their authorship, printing, publication, editions, etc.

1814 1838 1869 First so used in 1814 by T.F. Dibdin; 3. A book containing such details. First so used in 1838 by Henry Hallam; 4. A list of the books of a particular author, printer, or country, or of those dealing with any particular theme; the literature of a subject. First so used in 1869 by W. Rowlands.

Below we have given other definitions in chronological order:

1802 A Bibliographer is one who makes a special study of the knowledge of books, of literary history, and of all that relates to the art of printing.

1814 …Bibliography…denotes the knowledge of books, as it regards, 1, the materials of which they are composed, 2. the subjects discussed… 3. the knowledge of the different editions… and lastly…[their] classification.

Printing Chronology

Printing developed early in China; from stone rubbings, through seals and wood-blocks (Diamond Sutra 868 A.D.) till ±1050, when printing from movable, earthenware type was practised by Pi-Sheng.

±1400 Movable metal types cast from a mould used in Korea.

1423 The St Christopher block-print (now in the John Rylands Library, Manchester)

±1440 Gutenberg invents type-founding.

1454 The first dated publication (an Indulgence, printed by Gutenberg)

1457 The first time a book carries the name of the printer (Peter Schoeffer's Psalter)

1461 The first illustrated printed book, published by Albert Pfister of Bamberg (common about 1470)

1463 The first book with a title-page (a bull of Pius II, printed by Fuat and Schoeffer at Mainz)

1465 Printing introduced into Italy.

1470 Printing introduced into France.

– The first book with printed leaf-numbers, and head-lines, and a second title-page published by Arnold Ther Hoernen of Cologne.

1472 The first book with printed signatures, by Johann Koelhoff of Cologne.

1474 Caxton prints in Brughes.

1476 - Introduces sprinting into England.

– First complete title-page (Ratdolt's Calendarium).

1501 Aldine italic.

1705 Experiments with stereotype.

1720 Caslon cuts his first fount, in London.

1727 William Ged improves the stereotype process, and prints his Sallust (1739) from plates.

1798–1800 Charles, 3rd Earl Stanhope, perfects the iron press.

1812 Bensley invents the cylinder press.

1814 Koenig's cylinder, flat-bed printing machine driven by steam operates in The Times printing office. His is the first automatically inked press. Patented 1811.

1834 David Bruce invents the first commercially successful type-casting machine.

1837–9 Electrotype perfected.

1846 Hoe invents the Rotary press; constructed by Applegarth.

1884–6 L.B. Benton invents and perfects the punch-cutting machine.

1886–90 Linotype comes into use. (Invented 1876–86 by Otto Mergenthaler)

1887–99 Monotype machine perfected and brought on the market.

1946 Photographic type-composing perfected. Principle patented as early as 1921.

Even the oldest “books” of baked clay were enclosed in shells of similar material. The papyrus, or parchment rolls of classical antiquity were kept in vases, with a title slip attached to the “umbulicus” round which they were wound; in larger libraries they would be lying on shelves along the walls.

Binding as we know it to-day is supposed to have evolved from the diptycha which had reached perfection about the time when the roll was superseded by the codex of folded vellum leaves. It was natural to put these valuable ivory plates to some use in the churches as protection for the sacred books. The bindings there throughout the Middle Ages resembled jewellery rather than binding in the sense we use that word now; made with enamel and precious stones. The shape of the top and bottom covers differed because the latter had to be flat. But at the same time the binding of to-day was evolving. The sheets of vellum were folded once and put one inside the other, four together forming a quire, sewn on strips of leather, and encased in wooden boards, which were covered with skins of deer, first as a half-binding, later all over. The decoration of these first bindings in leather was probably (a few are still extant) done by the cuir-ciselé method. The skin was dampened, cut lightly, and shaped with tools into various patterns. This form of decoration went out of fashion but returned and reached perfection, especially in Germany, between 1350 and 1500. Books were expensive things and, for safety, were chained to desks or shelves. The titles were written on the fore-edges, so as to show when the books were lying down. Books were still very large.

The result of book designing should be a book harmonious in its proportions and with some relation in its looks to its subject matter, this irrespective of whether it is produced by hand by a private press, or composed on a machine in a commercial printing office.

The first designers of books were, of course, the printers themselves, but quite early in the history of printing, the publisher-printer appeared on the scene, and the distribution and financing of books gradually became divorced from their actual production. The various processes connected with bookmaking, e.g. binding, and the engraving of plates were done by specialist firms. Perhaps this is the reason why the nineteenth century was not a happy time for the art of the book, and perhaps the success in beauty, if not in money, of the earliest private presses and the revival of printing in the 90's derived from the fact that these presses were small enough to be supervised by one man. The typographic designer, the man who plans all details of the book before actual production begins is, however, only now entering his prime. Smaller houses have their publications planned by the publisher himself, and for some of the great publishers planning has been associated with expensive, private press books. One, if not the largest, of all publishing concerns in the United Kingdom: H.M.S.O., has only within recent years appointed Sir Francis Meynell as typographic adviser and, of course, with salutary results. Stanley Morison has been typographic adviser for various publishers for the last twenty to thirty years.

A prerequisite for a typographic adviser is a knowledge of the various processes of printing and illustration, down to their last detail, and then to combine them in the right way, not too startling to divert attention from the reading matter of the book - for which the design is only the body, after all - but not excluding some novel and pleasing details.

Paper Chronology

Invented in China 103 A.D. (see foot-note (1) on p.138) After the Mohammedan victory over the Chinese 655 paper was manufactured in Samarkand, Damascus, and towns in North Africa, whence it followed the Moors’ conquest of Spain about 1050.

1150. First paper-mill in Europe, Xativa, Spain, started. The Stamping mill was invented here.

In 1221 the use of paper for public documents was already resisted because of its perishability.

After the fall of the Moors paper was manufactured primarily in Italy.

1270 Paper-mill in Fabriano.

The oldest paper manufacturers used starch for sizing but from about 1270 the Italian mills used animal glue.

1282. The first watermark was made in Italy.

1389. Paper was fabricated by Stromer in Nuremberg.

1490 by John Tate, Hertfordshire.

1495 Wynkyn de Worde, successor to Caxton, printed De Proprietatibus Rerum, the first book printed on English-made paper.

1700 (?) The “Hollander” displaced the stampers formerly used.

1719 Wood and the Wasp. (Réaumur).

1750(?) Baskerville invented “wove” paper and 1758 used it for an edition of Virgil.

1765 Common vegetables, weeds, and woods were used by J.C. Schäffer in papermaking.

1774 Bleaching (following the discovery by Scheele of chloride).

1798 Louis Robert invented the paper machine later called the Fourdrinier.

1806 Engine sizing (with resin) invented by Illig.

1826 Dandy roll used first (in London). Invented between 1825–30 at the firm of T.A. & C.D. Marshall.

1844 Mechanized pulp method invented.

1851 Esparto paper fabricated and shown at the Great Exhibition. Commercialized 1857.

1854 Chemical wood pulp invented.

1890 Coated papers first made.

Before embarking on bibliographical work the compiler must define his purpose and make up his mind whether his objective is

• 1. the determination of authentic texts and their place in the stream of published documents, e.g. the publication of a literary form;

• 2. the study of the methods of publication, e.g. the output of a certain locality or person

• 3. the evaluation of some of the material of study, e.g. the best books on a subject.

Having determined his objective the compiler must consider the steps to be taken to reach it. The processes involved, as described by Gaselee are

• 1. Collection, i.e. the gathering (or at least locating) of the material to be studied;

• 2. Enumeration, or placing the items side by side, physically if possible, but if not, on paper;

• 3. Description of each separate item;

• 4. Analysis, or the elucidation of the points brought to light by the description;

• 5. Conclusion, or the determination of the significance, literary or historical, of the results reached by the preceding steps.

The sources of information for a compiler are: Bibliographies of bibliographies; General bibliographies; Library catalogues; National catalogues; Sale catalogues; Special bibliographies, e.g. forms of national literature: plays, romances, etc; Indexes to periodicals; Reference works; Periodicals and their indexes; Year's works, etc; Bibliographies in treatises on the subject. Consult the catalogues of local libraries; correspond with private owners and booksellers, and finally, advertise.

List the items on slips 3” × 5”, 20 × 25cm(Cole), arrange them temporarily in author order and note their locations, or the book from which reference is taken, on your working list. The completion of the working list and the determination of the material which is to form the subject matter of the bibliography constitute together the “Enumeration” or the second stage in bibliographical compilation. It will often be found useful to use punched cards.

Bibliography and Modern Book Production provides a fascinating journey through the historic practices of librarianship and publishing. The sources and material assembled here allow one to trace key developments in both bibliographic practice and book production from 1494 to 1949. As such it serves as a rich compendium for librarians and information workers as well as students and book publishers.

How did it come about? Who was its ‘assembler’, Percy Freer, and why has Wits University Press chosen to digitise it now, 70 years after its first publication?

The 1954 book arose from Freer's encyclopaedic knowledge of the intertwined disciplines of bibliographic practice and book production. It reflected his passion for librarianship and his vision for a text which could be used in the library course he proposed to the University of the Witwatersrand (Wits) in 1953. As one of two titles he published during his tenure as librarian (1929–1953), it demonstrates Freer's contribution to the landscape of library sciences, academia and the nascent practice of scholarly publishing in South Africa during his lifetime.

Given the book's value as a historic record in an era in which digital advances are changing the nature of publishing, it seemed fitting to bring new life to this text and ensure that future scholars have access to the wealth of knowledge it contains.

Librarian

Freer was born in 1893 and although he played many roles, was first and foremost a librarian. According to Humphrey Raikes’ foreword to this volume, he ‘entered the library world as a boy, at the age of 14’, though in what capacity is not clear. After World War I he studied at the Universities of Birmingham and Heidelberg, graduating with a BA Honours in 1922, after which he worked at the Norfolk and Norwich Library. In 1926 he moved to Cape Town, where he took up the position of under-librarian at the South African Public Library. During this time, he helped establish the South African Library Association and became the editor of its official journal, South African Libraries. In 1929 he was appointed as the first librarian at Wits University, where he remained until his retirement in 1953.

We begin by illustrating the interplay between questions of scientific interest and the use of data in seeking answers. Graphs provide a window through which meaning can often be extracted from data. Numeric summary statistics and probability distributions provide a form of quantitative scaffolding for models of random as well as nonrandom variation. Simple regression models foreshadow the issues that arise in the more complex models considered later in the book. Frequentist and Bayesian approaches to statistical inference are contrasted, the latter primarily using the Bayes Factor to complement the limited perspective that p-values offer. Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) and related "information" statistics provide a further perspective. Resampling methods, where the one available dataset is used to provide an empirical substitute for a theoretical distribution, are introduced. Remaining topics are of a more general nature. RStudio is one of several tools that can help in organizing and managing work. The checks provided by independent replication at another time and place are an indispensable complement to statistical analysis. Questions of data quality, of relevance to the questions asked, of the processes that generated the data, and of generalization, remain just as important for machine learning and other new analysis approaches as for more classical methods.

Multiple linear regression generalizes straight line regression to allow multiple explanatory (or predictor) variables, in this chapter under the normal errors assumption. The focus may be on accurate prediction. Or it may, alternatively or additionally, be on the regression coefficients themselves. Simplistic interpretations of coefficients can be grossly misleading. Later chapters elaborate on the ideas and methods developed in this chapter, applying them in new contexts. The attaching of causal interpretations to model coefficients must be justified both by reference to subject area knowledge and by careful checks to ensure that they are not artefacts of the correlation structure. There is attention to regression diagnostics, to assessment, and comparison of models. Variable selection strategies can readily over-fit. Hence the importance of training/test approaches and cross-validation. The potential is demonstrated for errors in x to seriously bias regression coefficients. Strong multicollinearity leads to large variance inflation factors.

This chapter moves from regression to methods that focus on the pattern presented by multiple variables, albeit with applications in regression analysis. A strong focus is to find patterns that beg further investigation, and/or replace many variables by a much smaller number that capture important structure in the data. Methodologies discussed include principal components analysis and multidimensional scaling more generally, cluster analysis (the exploratory process that groups “alike” observations) and dendogram construction, and discriminant analysis. Two sections discuss issues for the analysis of data, such as from high throughput genomics, where the aim is to determine, from perhaps thousands or tens of thousands of variables, which are shifted in value between groups in the data. A treatment of the role of balance and matching in making inferences from observational data then follows. The chapter ends with a brief introduction to methods for multiple imputation, which aims to use multivariate relationships to fill in missing values in observations that are incomplete, allowing them to have at least some role in a regression or other further analysis.