Principles from particle-motion physics were applied to recurring problems of the interpretation of stratigraphic charcoal data: (1) fires within catchments of lakes often produce no record in fossil-charcoal curves and (2) periods characterized by no local fire (e.g., 20th-century fire suppression) often display as much charcoal as times when local fire was frequent. Quantitative theory on source area, transport, deposition, and sampling of charcoal shows the relationship between particle sizes counted by alternative methods of charcoal analysis (pollen slides for particles 5–80 μm in diameter, petrographic thin sections for particles 50–10,000 μm diameter) and charcoal diagrams. The relationship between diameter and critical and deposition velocities results in fundamental aerodynamic differences between the sizes of particles quantified by the two methods. Charcoal recorded on pollen slides is of a size that is difficult to lift, but once entrained it remains in suspension. Thin-section charcoal is lifted at relatively low wind velocities, but it is not suspended at normal surface wind speeds. Thermal buoyancy during fire lofts charcoal above the forest canopy, depending on particle size and wind speed. Pollen-slide charcoal sizes are underrepresented near the fire, because they remain in suspension and are preferentially exported from the burn area. Thin-section charcoal is convected to lower heights on average and is deposited nearby. Following fire, thin-section charcoal is redistributed locally by wind and thus may enter lakes. Because of cohesive forces and aerodynamics, more pollen-slide charcoal remains on the ground, and less enters lakes. Source areas for pollen-slide charcoal are subcontinental to global, and diagrams of pollen-slide charcoal are biased toward nonlocal charcoal. They can be used to interpret importance of fire for broad spatial and temporal scales. Thin-section charcoal represents, the catchment fire regime. Simulation models that generate charcoal during fire, mix sediments, and then sample at specified intervals indicate that (1) in the absence of sediment mixing the pollen-slide method should consistently resolve individual fires that occur with an expectation of >30–50 yr, (2) unless samples are continuous, neither method will produce useful estimates of fire frequency, and (3) even a modest amount of sediment mixing will obscure the signal.

Results of stratigraphic charcoal analysis from thin sections of varved lake sediments have been compared with fire scars on red pine trees in northwestern Minnesota to determine if charcoal data accurately reflect fire regimes. Pollen and opaque-spherule analyses were completed from a short core to confirm that laminations were annual over the last 350 yr. A good correspondence was found between fossil-charcoal and fire-scar data. Individual fires could be identified as specific peaks in the charcoal curves, and times of reduced fire frequency were reflected in the charcoal data. Charcoal was absent during the fire-suppression era from 1920 A.D. to the present. Distinct charcoal maxima from 1864 to 1920 occurred at times of fire within the lake catchment. Fire was less frequent during the 19th century, and charcoal was substantially less abundant. Fire was frequent from 1760 to 1815, and charcoal was abundant continuously. Fire scars and fossil charcoal indicate that fires did not occur during 1730–1750 and 1670–1700. Several fires occurred from 1640 to 1670 and 1700 to 1730. Charcoal counted from pollen preparations in the area generally do not show this changing fire regime. Simulated “sampling” of the thin-section data in a fashion comparable to pollen-slide methods suggests that sampling alone is not sufficient to account for differences between the two methods. Integrating annual charcoal values in this fashion still produced much higher resolution than the pollen-slide method, and the postfire suppression decline of charcoal characteristic of my method (but not of pollen slides) is still evident. Consideration of the differences in size of fragments counted by the two methods is necessary to explain charcoal representation in lake sediments.

An unusually well-defined association between guano-derived phosphate rock (apatite) and coral carbonates on Pelsaert Island has provided an opportunity to test uranium-series dating methods as applied to insular phosphorites. The phosphate deposit, which is bracketed by late Pleistocene and Holocene corals with 230Th/234U ages of 120,000 and 4700 yr B.P., respectively, has 230Th/234U ages ranging from 85,000 to 112,000 yr B.P. The mutually consistent results suggest that phosphate deposition commenced soon after the peak of the last interglaciation and has been largely controlled by sea-level fluctuations and probably other factors associated with late Quaternary climate in this area.

Westward expansion of the Patagonian steppe and retrocession of Andean forests due to increasing aridity over the past one or two millennia has been a persistent theme in the ecological and paleoecological literature for at least half a century. New evidence from pollen profiles, tree-ring analysis, vegetation structure, and photographic and documentary historical sources does not show the expansion of the steppe. Instead, over the past century trees have invaded the steppe as a consequence mainly of human-induced changes in the fire regime, and trees have regenerated in forest areas that were heavily burnt at the onset of European colonization.

The Rupicaprini originated during the Miocene in Asia and dispersed during the late Miocene-early Pliocene, the Villafranchian, and the middle Pleistocene. Rupicapra and Oreamnos spread respectively to Europe and to North America in the middle Pleistocene. The Villafranchian Procamptoceras may be considered to be the closest known form to Rupicapra's ancestor. Rupicapra evolved during the middle and late Pleistocene in west Eurasia. At the beginning of the Würm glaciation the two closely related species R. pyrenaica and R. rupicapra were in existence. The former was already geographically split into Spanish-Pyrenean and central-southern Apennines groups, while the latter species ranged from the Caucasus to the Alpine Arch. R. pyrenaica shows more conservative features and possibly differentiated directly in western Europe from older representatives of the genus that migrated to western Europe in the middle Pleistocene. The cold-adapted Alpine chamois may have differentiated in eastern Europe and then migrated west-ward because of the advent of dry climates in the east Mediterranean and Pontic regions. The Alpine chamois failed to spread to the warmer southernmost regions of Europe that became a refugium area for R. pyrenaica. This dispersal hypothesis explains the morphologic, biometric, electrophoretic, and behavioral differences among modern chamois populations.

The teeth of many large herbivores contain “pockets” (fossettes, fossettids, etc.) which entrap impacted samples of food (dental boluses) during mastication. These do not preserve well in most fossil deposits, but at Rancho La Brea, paleobotanical remains survive essentially intact and dental boluses from late Pleistocene forms are amenable to microhistological analysis. Of the identifiable bolus contents, those from Bison antiquus averaged 87% nonmonocotyledons; from Camelops hesternus, 90% nonmonocotyledons; and from Equus occidentalis (one specimen), 56% nonmonocotyledons. A control study on modern Bison bison shows that the boluses contain somewhat lower percentages of monocotyledons than do alimentary samples from the same individuals. However, this accounts for only a part of the very high percentage of nonmonocotyledons in the boluses of the extinct Bison. We conclude that the populations of B. antiquus and C. hesternus represented at Rancho La Brea probably fed little on grasses and that there is enough indirect evidence to suggest that the same may be true for other populations of these taxa. The Equus data are not sufficient to do more than question the usual assumption that Pleistocene horses were always obligate grass eaters.

Dendroecological analysis of black spruces (Picea mariana (Mill.) BSP.) near the shore of Clearwater Lake in the eastern Canadian subarctic yielded information on water level over the past three centuries. Tree positions, growth froms, layering, tree ring patterns, and ice scars provide direct evidence of a major rise in lake level. From the 17th century to the present, trees on the lake shore were progressively submerged by the increasing water level, which reached a maximum in this century. Higher levels began around the mid-18th century when shoreline spruce trees started to lean because extensive wave erosion caused landward shore displacement. High mortality of leaning spruce and abundant ice scar formation occurred during this century. The rise in water level in inferred to have been caused by snowier winters occurring parallel to climatic warming.

The δD of cellulose from 14C-dated wood, collected in the San Juan Mountains of southwestern Colorado, decreased by about 45‰ from 9600 to 3100 yr B.P. and an additional 25‰ to the present. The wood samples are from trees that grew above present-day tree line and reflect a time of warmer average summer temperatures. These changes in δD are interpreted to indicate a major change during the Holocene in the sources of moisture, in the seasonality of precipitation, or in both.

Conifer wood, probably spruce (Picea sp.), of middle Wisconsinan age (29,200 ± 500 yr B.P.) was recovered from late-glacial lake sediments from Upper South Branch Pond, Maine. If the wood was derived from a local source, deglaciation of part of northern New England is suggested for this time. The occurrence also has implications for understanding the problem associated with radiocarbon dating of bulk lake sediment containing small amounts of organic matter.

Five seasons of excavation in Feature Area 2-1 of the Lubbock Lake Landmark, Texas, exposed a megafaunal bone accumulation in sands and gravels deposited by a late Pleistocene meandering stream. Many bone specimens exhibit evidence of alteration, supporting interpretation of the feature as an in situ, secondary meat-processing area; the gravels are interpreted as the point bar of a meandering stream. Faunal remains lying stratigraphically above the point bar have been considered to form a separate, noncultural feature produced by stream flooding. However, rose diagrams and analysis of adjusted residuals demonstrate that a statistically significant amount of bone in each feature is aligned along axes of preferred orientation. Further, the orientation patterns and statistical analyses of both features exhibit the same trends, suggesting that the same processes affected both. Although the evidence does not rule out a role of human behavior, it does demonstrate that stream currents significantly influenced feature structure.