The objective of this study was to define further the environmental requirements for safe sites for germination of diffuse knapweed achenes (seeds). Germination temperature profiles were developed for diffuse knapweed seeds collected from sites in the Great Basin and Colorado. Each profile consisted of seeds germinated at 55 constant or alternating temperatures from 0 through 40 C. The resulting germination was used to develop quadratic response surfaces with regression analysis. Some germination occurred from 71 to 96% of the temperature regimes, depending on the accession being tested. Maximum observed germination ranged from 85 to 98%. Optimum germination, defined as the maximum observed minus one half the confidence interval at the 0.01 level of probability, occurred at a wide range of temperatures from cold periods of 0 through 20 C, alternating with warm periods of 10 through 35 C. The temperature regimes that most frequently supported optimum germination were 5/25 C (5 C for 16 h and 25 C for 8 h in each 24-h period) and 10/25 C. Germination of diffuse knapweed seeds was generally higher at alternating than constant temperatures.

Tubulins are encoded by small gene families in plants. Here we report the cloning and characterization of water foxtail α-tubulin genes (AaTUA), an economically important weed. The genome of water foxtail contains TUA family consisting of at least four genes. Using degenerate primers, four partial TUA genes were isolated from the complementary DNA (cDNA) of water foxtail. Using the partial gene sequences, specific primers for each TUA gene were designed and full-length TUA cDNAs were isolated. These genes were designated as AaTUA1 to AaTUA4. The deduced amino acid sequences of AaTUA genes showed significant homology to the TUA genes of barley, corn, and Arabidopsis. The coding sequences of the AaTUA1 and AaTUA3 genes were interrupted by three introns and there were four introns in the coding regions of AaTUA2 and AaTUA4. The organ-specific expression of AaTUA genes showed that AaTUA1 and AaTUA4 were predominantly expressed in all organs examined (root, stem, young leaf, mature leaf, and panicle), whereas AaTUA2 was expressed mainly in roots and AaTUA3 was expressed in stem, root, and panicle. Abscisic acid (ABA) and gibberellic acid (GA) differentially induced the expression of AaTUA1 and AaTUA3. Moreover, trifluralin, propham, and caffeic acid induced the expression of all AaTUA genes in a dose-dependent manner except AaTUA2. This is the first report of complete sequences of AaTUA genes and the first characterization of these genes for any Alopecurus species in the literature.

Saflufenacil (Kixor™) is a new herbicide of the pyrimidinedione chemical class for preplant burndown and selective preemergence dicot weed control in multiple crops, including corn. In this study, the mode of action of saflufenacil was investigated. For initial characterization, a series of biotests was used in a physionomics approach for comprehensive physiological profiling of saflufenacil effects. With the use of treated duckweed plants, metabolite profiling was performed based on quantification of metabolite changes, relative to untreated controls. Physiological and metabolite profiling suggested a mode of action similar to inhibitors of protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase (PPO) in tetrapyrrole biosynthetic pathway. Saflufenacil inhibited PPO enzyme activity in vitro with 50% inhibition of 0.4 nM for the enzymes isolated from black nightshade, velvetleaf, and corn. PPO inhibition by saflufenacil caused accumulations of protoporphyrin IX (Proto) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in leaf tissue of black nightshade and velvetleaf. In corn, only slight increases in Proto and H2O2 were found, which reflects in planta tolerance of this crop. The results show that saflufenacil is a new PPO-inhibiting, peroxidizing herbicide.

Purslane weed has long been used for animal feed in Thailand but has beenunderutilized, and no published data exist on the chemical and nutritionalqualities of Thai wild purslane. In this study, we aimed to determine themicrochemical components of purslane stem, leaf, and flower, including thephenolic acid, flavonoid, ascorbic acid, β-carotene, and fatty acid content.The water extract of the flower fraction contained the highest totalphenolic acid content and had the highest O2-scavengingactivities, whereas leaf contained the highest amount of total flavonoidsand ascorbic acid. The β-carotene content was not significantly different inleaf and flower fractions but was significantly greater than that in stem (P< 0.05). The predominant phenolic acid was chlorogenic acid for allfractions. Rutin was the major flavonoid found in leaf, and myricetin washighest in flower and stem. Alpha linolenic acid (18:3n-3) content rangedfrom 16% (149 mg per 100-g sample) of total fatty acid in stem to 50% (523mg per 100-g sample) in leaf. We suggest that Thai wild purslane could beconsidered a nutritional source for animal feed or an excellent vegetable inthe human diet.

Laboratory studies were conducted using 14C-aminocyclopyrachlor (DPX-MAT28) and its 14C-methyl ester formulation (DPX-KJM44) to (1) determine the adjuvants' effects on absorption, (2) compare the absorption and translocation of aminocyclopyrachlor free acid with the methyl ester, and (3) determine the rate at which aminocyclopyrachlor-methyl ester is metabolized to the free acid in Canada thistle. Canada thistle plants were grown from root cuttings and treated in the rosette growth stage. The effect of different adjuvants on absorption was determined by treating individual leaves with formulated herbicide plus 14C-herbicide alone or with methylated seed oil (MSO), crop oil concentrate, or nonionic surfactant with and without urea ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulfate. Plants were harvested 96 h after treatment (HAT). For absorption and translocation experiments, plants were oversprayed with aminocyclopyrachlor or its methyl ester at a rate of 0.14 kg ae ha−1 in combination with 1% MSO. Formulated herbicide plus 14C-herbicide was then applied to a protected leaf, and plants were harvested 24 to 192 HAT. Plants were harvested and radioactivity was determined in the treated leaf and in aboveground and belowground tissues. Metabolism of aminocyclopyrachlor-methyl ester to the free acid was determined 2, 6, and 24 HAT. All aboveground biomass was analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography to establish the ratio of methyl ester to free acid. MSO applied with either herbicide formulation resulted in the highest absorption compared with no surfactant. Significantly greater aminocyclopyrachlor-methyl ester was absorbed, compared with the free acid, which was reflected in the greater aboveground translocation for the methyl ester. Both formulations had similar amounts of translocation to the roots, with 8.6% (SE ± 3.3) for the methyl ester compared with 6.2% (SE ± 2.5) for the free acid. Approximately 80% of the methyl ester was converted to the free acid at 6 HAT. Based on this conversion rate, aminocyclopyrachlor translocated as the free acid in Canada thistle.

Weedy rice is a serious weed of cultivated rice in most of the rice-growing areas of the tropics and yet, despite its importance as a weed, limited information is available on its biology in Asia. A study was conducted to determine the seed characteristics and growth response to competition of weedy rice variants from five Asian countries (India [IWR], Malaysia [MWR], Philippines [PWR], Thailand [TWR], and Vietnam [VWR]) when grown alone or with either 4 or 12 cultivated rice (‘IR72’) plants. Seed characteristics including weight, length, width, and presence and length of awn differed between weedy rice variants. PWR had the heaviest seed (25 mg seed−1). Growth of weedy rice plants differed among variants and, generally, VWR grew the fastest. IR72 interference greatly reduced tiller and leaf numbers, leaf area, and shoot biomass of all weedy rice variants. At 8 wk after sowing, for example, shoot biomass of weedy rice variants in competition with 12 IR72 plants was 13 to 30% of that where plants were grown alone. TWR plants were shorter than those of other variants at all levels of crop interference. These results show that there are considerable differences among Asian weedy rice variants and yet, competition from the rice crop greatly suppresses weedy rice growth. This suggests that measures to ensure a competitive crop should be an important component of control strategies.

Multiyear field data from Spain were used to model seedling emergence for three bedstraw species (Galium) that can coexist in winter cereal fields. The relationships between cumulative emergence and both growing degree days (GDD) and hydrothermal time (HTT) in soil were analyzed as sigmoid growth functions (Weibull). Iterations of base temperature and base water potential were used to optimize the HTT scale. All species were well described with Weibull functions. Both GDD and HTT models provided good descriptions of catchweed bedstraw emergence, as its seedlings have less dependence on soil water potential than false cleavers and threehorn bedstraw, which were described best with HTT. The HTT model for catchweed bedstraw was validated successfully with independent data from the United Kingdom. The models may be useful for predicting bedstraw emergence in semiarid Mediterranean regions and elsewhere.

Experiments were conducted to determine the efficacy, absorption, andtranslocation of nicosulfuron, rimsulfuron, and nicosulfuron + rimsulfuronon barnyardgrass, green foxtail, longspine sandbur, and large crabgrass. Inthe greenhouse, nicosulfuron, rimsulfuron, and nicosulfuron + rimsulfuronwere applied at 0.0625, 0.125, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1, and 2 times their labelrates of 35, 13, and 26 + 13 g ai ha−1, respectively, on 5- to10-cm plants. Three weeks after treatment (WAT), barnyardgrass was the mostsusceptible species to all three herbicides, and large crabgrass was theleast susceptible. The nicosulfuron, rimsulfuron, or nicosulfuron +rimsulfuron rates causing 50% visible injury (GR50) forbarnyardgrass were 10.9, 4.8, and 6 + 3 g ai ha−1, respectively.Similarly, the GR50 for large crabgrass were 25.6, 9.9, and 14.3+ 7.2 g ai ha−1, respectively, 3 WAT. Absorption of nicosulfuron,rimsulfuron, and nicosulfuron + rimsulfuron was greater in barnyardgrassthan in large crabgrass. Absorption of nicosulfuron + rimsulfuron inbarnyardgrass and large crabgrass was 74% and 57%, respectively, 7 d aftertreatment (DAT). In addition, translocation of nicosulfuron, rimsulfuron,and nicosulfuron + rimsulfuron out of the treated leaf was 14, 12, and 14%higher, respectively, in barnyardgrass than in large crabgrass. Thedifferential response of these weed species to nicosulfuron, rimsulfuron,and nicosulfuron + rimsulfuron might be due to differences in herbicideabsorption and translocation.

Aminocyclopyrachlor, a newly discovered synthetic auxin herbicide, and its methyl ester, appear to control a number of perennial broadleaf weeds. The potential volatility of this new herbicide and its methyl ester were determined under laboratory conditions and were also compared to dicamba and aminopyralid with the use of enclosed chamber and open-air plant bioassays. Bioassays consisting of visual estimates of epinastic responses and kidney bean and soybean leaf-width measurements were developed to measure vapor release from glass and plastic. Vapor release of aminocyclopyrachlor from glass surfaces was undetectable under laboratory conditions, and no phytotoxic responses were observed when plants were exposed to vapors emanating from various surfaces. Results were similar to those of aminopyralid, indicating the risk of plant injury from vapor movement of aminocyclopyrachlor and aminopyralid was very low. When combined with 1% methylated seed oil, vapor release of aminocyclopyrachlor-methyl ester reached 86% 192 h after application to glass surfaces. Phytotoxic responses of plants exposed to vapors emanating from various surfaces treated with aminocyclopyrachlor-methyl ester were similar to responses to dicamba under enclosed incubation conditions, but were less in outdoor, open-air environments. Studies are needed to understand better the risk of injury to nontarget plants due to vapor movement of aminocyclopyrachlor-methyl ester under field applications.

Soybean cyst nematode (SCN) is one of the most yield limiting pathogens in U.S. soybean production. Henbit and purple deadnettle are winter annual weeds shown to facilitate SCN reproduction after crop harvest in the eastern Corn Belt. These weeds, along with volunteer soybean that germinates in autumn after harvest, are common to postharvest soybean production fields and provide an opportunity for SCN reproduction and population increase outside of the typical soybean production season. The objective of this experiment was to determine if autumn removal of these weeds and volunteer soybean can influence the winter weed seedbank, plant biomass, and SCN population densities. Microplots were established with or without Lamium spp. and volunteer soybean, and four winter weed removal timings (none, October, December, and May). Dry weights of autumn Lamium spp. were reduced 50% in October when grown in competition with volunteer soybean. SCN juveniles were found in henbit roots at higher densities in October (42 per gram of root) than December (5 per gram of root) and were also found in the roots of volunteer soybean (14 per gram of root) in October. SCN egg population densities were 50% lower in August after the summer fallow period. The results of this experiment suggest that autumn removal of winter annual weeds and volunteer soybean did not reduce SCN populations.

Experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of shading on and location of the mother plant on germination and hormone content of Palmer amaranth seed. Increasing the shading from 0 to 87% decreased germination of fresh, viable seeds in dark from 25 to 12%. Abscisic acid (ABA) content of seeds from plants in 0% shade increased from 13.3 ng g−1 dry seed to 19.1 ng g−1 dry seed with 87% shade. Shading of the mother plant did not influence the 1,000-seed weight of Palmer amaranth. Seeds that matured in the top and middle third of the mother plant had 67 to 78% greater germination than those that matured in the bottom third of the mother plant. Endogenous gibberellic acid (GA) content of seeds did not differ between locations on the mother plant; however, the ABA content of seeds produced on the bottom third of the plant was 46 and 59% higher than the ABA content of seeds produced at the middle and top third of the plant, respectively. Endogenous ABA or GA content of seeds and 1,000-seed weight had no relationship with seed germination over and above the treatment effects. This research suggests that shading and plant location can influence germination of fresh, viable seeds of Palmer amaranth, which will be a dormancy strategy for seed dispersal over time.

Bushkiller was evaluated under inter- and intraspecific competition. Inexperiment 1, bushkiller, trumpetcreeper, and wild grape weregreenhouse-grown alone and in two or three species mixtures in pots. Of thethree species, bushkiller grew the tallest and had the greatest finalbiomass when grown alone. When all three species were grown together,bushkiller grew over twice the height of trumpetcreeper, over three timesthe height of wild grape, and over four times the biomass of eithercompeting species. Plots of height over time showed that competition did notaffect bushkiller or wild grape growth rate, but trumpetcreeper growth wasreduced when grown with bushkiller. In experiment 2, bushkiller was grown incultures of one, two, and three plants per pot to determine intraspecificcompetition effects on growth. Final height of bushkiller was not affectedby intraspecific competition; however, bushkiller biomass decreased withincreasing competition.

The evolution of glyphosate resistance in weedy species places an environmentally benign herbicide in peril. The first report of a dicot plant with evolved glyphosate resistance was horseweed, which occurred in 2001. Since then, several species have evolved glyphosate resistance and genomic information about nontarget resistance mechanisms in any of them ranges from none to little. Here, we report a study combining iGentifier transcriptome analysis, cDNA sequencing, and a heterologous microarray analysis to explore potential molecular and transcriptomic mechanisms of nontarget glyphosate resistance of horseweed. The results indicate that similar molecular mechanisms might exist for nontarget herbicide resistance across multiple resistant plants from different locations, even though resistance among these resistant plants likely evolved independently and available evidence suggests resistance has evolved at least four separate times. In addition, both the microarray and sequence analyses identified non–target-site resistance candidate genes for follow-on functional genomics analysis.

Invasive species such as Canada thistle pose a significant threat to ecosystems. The risk of introducing invasive species has increased with human activities, and the effects of such events have economic and aesthetic impacts. Native to Europe, Canada thistle is now established throughout temperate North America. Although there is documentation of early occurrences to North America, little is known on how it has become established in diverse habitats or how it continues to spread. We examined genetic diversity within and among nearly 1,700 Canada thistle individuals from 85 North American locations with the use of seven microsatellite markers in order to address these questions. PAUP and STRUCTURE programs were used to assess genetic diversity and relationships within and between populations. Populations exhibited greater within-population diversity (> 60%) than expected for a reported clonally reproducing species. Total diversity of sampled locations in North America (0.183) was less than previously reported for European locations (0.715), but the greater mean difference between North American populations (0.264 relative to 0.246 from England) suggests strong founder effects or restriction of gene flow influencing individual populations. Furthermore, analyses identified numerous instances where individuals from geographically distant regions clustered together, indicating long-distance translocation of propogules. However, isolation by distance analysis showed significant correlation between location and population genetic distances (r = 0.1917, P = 0.006). Within populations, nearly 92% of individuals sampled harbored unique multilocus genotypes, strongly suggesting that sexual reproduction is common. Within populations, analysis of genetic structure indicated significant admixture of genotypes throughout the invasive range in North America. The recurrent distribution of seed throughout North America has led to a highly diverse gene pool and increased the adaptive success Canada thistle to a wide variety of habitats. Future technologies developed for control of Canada thistle should consider this diversity.

Basic factors contributing to the rapid evolution and broad distribution of acetolactate synthase (ALS)-inhibiting herbicide resistance in smallflower umbrella sedge L. have not yet been investigated. The objectives of this study were to examine patterns of cross-resistance to ALS herbicides and genetic diversity within and among smallflower umbrella sedge populations in California rice fields to provide insight into the processes contributing to resistance spread. Twelve different patterns of herbicide cross-resistance were found across the 56 populations sampled. The frequency of populations with at least one resistant individual in the North, Central and South Sacramento Valley, and the San Joaquin Valley were 76, 86, 67, and 50%, respectively. Analysis of the genetic diversity of 29 populations using 73 sequence-related amplified polymorphism molecular markers revealed little genetic diversity within populations, with estimates of Nei's gene diversity index, h, ranging from 0 to 0.049, and Shannon's information index (I) ranging from 0 to 0.079. Hierarchical analyses of molecular variance indicated that the majority of genetic variation was partitioned among populations, rather than within populations or among regional groups. No isolation by distance was evident. Unweighted pair group method with arithmetic averages analysis indicated that population clustering was not region specific. The results suggest that resistance to ALS-inhibiting herbicides in smallflower umbrella sedge populations from California rice fields appears to have evolved independently multiple times rather than spread from a single population where resistance originated. Consequently, prevention and management of smallflower umbrella sedge in California rice fields should emphasize in-field strategies that focus on decreasing the selection pressure caused by ALS-inhibiting herbicides.

Old World climbing fern is one of the most invasive plants in natural areas of central and southern Florida. The fern spreads across the landscape by wind-blown spores and invades isolated and undisturbed habitats such as interior portions of the Florida Everglades. Land managers in Florida have reported that multiple herbicide treatments are required to control the fern, which could indicate that herbicides do not translocate throughout the plant in long-established populations. We conducted a greenhouse study to determine the absorption and translocation patterns in Old World climbing fern using the three herbicides most commonly used for management of this plant by land managers in Florida. Using 14C-labeled herbicides, we evaluated absorption and translocation of glyphosate (2.25 kg ai ha−1), metsulfuron (0.10 kg ai ha−1), and triclopyr (1.68 kg ai ha−1) in Old World climbing fern using five different application scenarios (cut-and-spray, basal spray, 25% foliar spray, 50% foliar spray, and 100% foliar spray). Triclopyr was absorbed to the greatest extent (60.3%) of applied radioactive compounds compared to glyphosate (31.2%) and metsulfuron (19.8%). The majority of radioactivity remained in treated leaves for all herbicides with only small percentages of the absorbed radioactivity being detected in other plant parts. All three herbicides translocated acropetally and basipitally to some extent. Radioactivity, for the most part, translocated evenly throughout the plants but the greatest amount of radioactivity derived from triclopyr occurred in rhizomes when the cut-and-spray and basal applications were used. The radioactivity in rhizomes derived from glyphosate was greater in those treated using cut-and-spray. Based on autoradiographs, there was limited horizontal movement of any herbicide in the rhizomes of Old World climbing fern which could explain why resprouts are observed several weeks following treatment.

Imidazolinone-resistant (IR) winter wheat allows selective control of jointed goatgrass with the herbicide imazamox. However, the spontaneous hybridization between jointed goatgrass and IR winter wheat threatens the value of the IR technology. The objectives of this study were to determine if F1 hybrids collected in a commercial production field under IR winter wheat–fallow rotation in Oregon and their first-backcross progeny (BC1) carried the Imi1 gene and were resistant to imazamox, and to analyze the parentage of F1 and BC1 plants. The average seed set of the F1 spikes was 3.3%, and the average germination of BC1 seed was 52%. All F1 and BC1 plants tested carried Imi1. Jointed goatgrass plant mortality was 100% when treated with imazamox at 0.053 kg ai ha−1, compared to 0% for IR winter wheat and BC1 progeny. All F1 plants had jointed goatgrass as the maternal parent; whereas, most BC1 plants (85.7%) were produced with IR winter wheat as the paternal backcross parent. Although the backcrossing of F1 hybrids with jointed goatgrass is very low, it demonstrates the potential for introgression of Imi1 from IR winter wheat into jointed goatgrass under natural field conditions.

Field studies were conducted in 2007 and 2008 at Clinton and Faison, NC, toevaluate the influence of Palmer amaranth density on ‘Beauregard’ and‘Covington’ sweetpotato yield and quality and to quantify the influence ofPalmer amaranth on light interception. Palmer amaranth was established at 0,0.5, 1.1, 1.6, 3.3, and 6.5 plants m−1 within the sweetpotato rowand densities were maintained season-long. Jumbo, number (no.) 1, andmarketable sweetpotato yield losses were fit to a rectangular hyperbolamodel, and predicted yield loss ranged from 56 to 94%, 30 to 85%, and 36 to81%, respectively for Palmer amaranth densities of 0.5 to 6.5 plants m−1. Percentage of jumbo, no. 1, and marketable sweetpotatoyield loss displayed a positive linear relationship with Palmer amaranthlight interception as early as 6 to 7 wk after planting (R2 = 0.99, 0.86, and 0.93, respectively). Predicted Palmeramaranth light interception 6 to 7, 10, and 13 to 14 wk after plantingranged from 47 to 68%, 46 to 82%, and 42 to 71%, respectively for Palmeramaranth densities of 0.5 to 6.5 plants m−1. Palmer amaranthheight increased from 177 to 197 cm at densities of 0.5 to 4.1 plants m−1 and decreased from 197 to 188 cm at densities of 4.1 to6.5 plants m−1; plant width (69 to 145 cm) and shoot dry biomass plant−1 (0.2 to 1.1 kg) decreased linearly as densityincreased.

Horseweed has rapidly become a major weed in soybean and cotton production fields of the United States, and Indiana farmers ranked horseweed as one of the five worst weeds in their fields during a mail survey in 2003. Glyphosate resistance in horseweed is conferred by a single, incompletely dominant gene. Horseweed populations possess a high level of variability in their response to glyphosate. Horseweed has also evolved resistance to acetolactate synthase (ALS) inhibitors, and biotypes resistant to ALS-inhibiting herbicides and glyphosate are in many of the same areas. An experiment was designed to determine whether glyphosate resistance can be transferred by pollen. We found glyphosate-resistant plants in 1.1 to 3.8% of the progeny. Segregation ratios fit the expected 3 : 1 resistant : sensitive ratios confirming that glyphosate resistance in horseweed can transfer to closely located glyphosate-susceptible biotypes under open-pollinated conditions at low frequencies. The hypothesis of a follow-up experiment was that first-generation progeny of parent plants, selected on a continuum of low to high phenotypic response to glyphosate, will inherit respective low to high phenotypic responses to glyphosate. The variability in field-collected populations (low-level to high-level glyphosate resistance) ranged from 2 to 14 times the commonly recommended field use rate of glyphosate. However, low- and high-levels of glyphosate resistance were not observed in first-generation progeny. We conclude that differential glyphosate responses observed among parental populations was due to different frequencies of the resistance allele within the populations, rather than the presence of different resistance alleles.