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Global poultry production: current state and future outlook and challenges
- A. MOTTET, G. TEMPIO
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- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 11 April 2017, pp. 245-256
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This paper presents the current situation of the global poultry sector and future trends, and discusses the challenges the sector is facing, with particular emphasis on four areas: food security, social challenges (poverty alleviation and equity), health (animal and human) and environment (natural resources and climate change). Poultry makes a substantial contribution to food security and nutrition, providing energy, protein, and essential micro-nutrients to humans, with short production cycles and the ability to convert a wide range of agri-food by-products and wastes into meat and eggs edible by humans. Poultry is the fastest growing agricultural sub-sector, especially in developing countries. The global poultry sector is expected to continue to grow as demand for meat and eggs is driven by growing populations, rising incomes and urbanisation. In this context, the sector is facing unprecedented challenges. Particularly for small holders and the poor, both in rural and urban areas, poultry is a major asset and key to poverty alleviation, providing income and market participation. Birds can be sold in times of crisis and act as household insurance. But the growing market is essentially benefiting large scale operations and access to market is critical for small holders. However, poultry represent a threat to human health, especially as a vector of infectious diseases and because of its role in antimicrobial resistance. Furthermore, poultry has a significant impact on the environment and is a large consumer of natural resources. While the sector is usually seen as efficient in converting natural resources into edible products, it uses large amounts of land, water and nutrients for the production of feed materials and contributes to climate change, mainly through feed production, and air and water pollution.
The welfare of layer hens in cage and cage-free housing systems
- K.M. HARTCHER, B. JONES
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- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 31 October 2017, pp. 767-782
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Historically, animal welfare has been defined by the absence of negative states such as disease, hunger and thirst. However, a shift in animal welfare science has led to the understanding that good animal welfare cannot be achieved without the experience of positive states. Unequivocally, the housing environment has significant impacts on animal welfare. This review summarises how cage and cage-free housing systems impact some of the key welfare issues for layer hens: musculoskeletal health, disease, severe feather pecking, and behavioural expression. Welfare in cage-free systems is currently highly variable, and needs to be addressed by management practices, genetic selection, further research, and appropriate design and maintenance of the housing environment. Conventional cages lack adequate space for movement, and do not include features to allow behavioural expression. Hens therefore experience extreme behavioural restriction, musculoskeletal weakness and an inability to experience positive affective states. Furnished cages retain the benefits of conventional cages in terms of production efficiency and hygiene, and offer some benefits of cage-free systems in terms of an increased behavioural repertoire, but do not allow full behavioural expression. In Australia, while the retail market share of free-range eggs has been increasing in recent years, the majority of hens (approximately 70%) remain housed in conventional cages, and furnished cages are not in use. Unlike many other countries including New Zealand, Canada, and all those within the European Union (where a legislated phase-out commenced in 1999 and was completed in 2012) a legislative phase-out of conventional cages has not been announced in Australia. This review came about in light of the current development of the Australian Animal Welfare Standards and Guidelines for Poultry in Australia. These standards are intended to provide nationally consistent legislation for the welfare of all poultry species in all Australian states and territories. While it is purported that the standards will reflect contemporary scientific knowledge, there is no scientific review, nor scientific committee to inform the development of these standards, and conventional cages are permitted in the standards with no phase-out proposed.
Factors affecting poultry meat colour and consumer preferences - A review
- N. WIDEMAN, C.A. O'BRYAN, P.G. CRANDALL
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- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 25 April 2016, pp. 353-366
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Much of the dark meat from U.S. broilers continues to be exported to other countries because of local consumers’ long-standing and strong preference for white breast meat. In this review we will discuss what causes meat colour differences and how environmental and genetic factors influence the colour of poultry meat. It is well documented that the darker colour of leg/thigh meat is due to the larger amount of myoglobin and haem pigments, as well as a higher pH when compared to breast meat. Slaughtering older birds increases myoglobin content in the meat and selection of breeds for greater breast meat yield may be involved. Using a wheat-based diet tends to lighten the colour of breast meat but has less effect on the thigh meat. Several antimicrobials used in further processing can lead to either bleaching or a reddening of the meat. Changes to colour using chemical or physiological methods are theoretically possible, however may not be great enough to improve consumer acceptability. From a marketing perspective, increased media promotion of dark meat as being equal to white meat in healthiness and superior in flavour may have the greatest effect on increasing sales.
Function and nutritional roles of the avian caeca: a review
- B. SVIHUS, M. CHOCT, H.L. CLASSEN
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- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 28 June 2013, pp. 249-264
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The role of the avian caeca in the maintenance of gut health, fermentation of undigested nutrients, re-cycling of nitrogen from urine, and modulation of the gut microflora is not well understood. Thus, this review details the function of the avian caeca from anatomical, physiological, microbial and nutritional points of view in the context of poultry production. Due to anatomical and physiological adaptations, only small and/or soluble particles will be refluxed into the caeca together with urine and digestive fluids. Here, salts and water will be reabsorbed, and uric acid and carbohydrates will be fermented by the abundant microflora to ammonia and volatile fatty acids. Thus, the caeca may play a role for the nutritional status of the bird, although the quantitative significance for high-yielding domesticated poultry remains to be elucidated.
Impact of animal welfare on worldwide poultry production
- W. BESSEI
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- 27 February 2018, pp. 211-224
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Animal welfare has become an important issue in poultry production. Concern about poultry welfare has mainly been expressed in industrialised countries. Since trade of poultry products is highly internationalised, welfare aspects have to be considered by all countries involved. This paper reviews the changes in the attitude to animal welfare in Western societies and the related development of regulations and standards, the impact of high welfare standards on production costs and on international trade of poultry products and finally, the influence of different stakeholders on poultry production and marketing. From the 1960s onwards, animal welfare activities have been focused on farm animals kept under ‘industrial’ conditions, such as caged laying hens. Consequently, the management conditions for laying hens in Europe have been regulated in detail by national laws and EU-Directives. Meanwhile, conventional cages have been banned in the EU and welfare activities are now directed towards other issues, such as beak-trimming and killing day-old chicks of layer lines. All measures which are considered to improve the welfare of animals increase cost of production. Hence, differences in national welfare regulations are expected to relocate poultry production to countries with low welfare standards. There is a tendency that important retailers and food chains use welfare as a marketing argument and establish high price premium labels. Standards which are established and controlled by stakeholders of the poultry market are independent of national welfare legislation. This will lead to harmonisation of welfare standards on an international level. Most welfare labels have been developed by retailers in cooperation with welfare-oriented NGOs. There is a new trend in Germany where retailers and farmers organisations develop welfare schemes and poultry producers are paid an extra allowance for welfare-friendly production. This system ensures that poultry farmers are reimbursed for the welfare-related costs.
Meat quality in fast-growing broiler chickens
- M. PETRACCI, S. MUDALAL, F. SOGLIA, C. CAVANI
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- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 03 June 2015, pp. 363-374
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During the past few decades there has been a notable increase in the demand for poultry meat due to its low cost, good nutritional profile and suitability for further processing. Moreover, current forecasts and projection studies have predicted that the expansion of the poultry market will continue in the future. This growing demand has led to progressive improvements in genetic selection to produce fast-growing broilers, inducing the appearance of several spontaneous, idiopathic muscle abnormalities along with an increased susceptibility to stress-induced myopathy. Such muscle abnormalities have several implications for the quality of fresh and processed products, as breast meat that is affected by deep pectoral myopathy is usually rejected due to its unacceptable appearance. In addition, pale, soft and exudative like meat has a low processing ability due to its reduced water holding capacity, soft texture and pale colour. Finally, the high incidence of abnormalities observed in chicken breast muscles such as white striping (characterised by superficial white striations) and wooden breast (characterised by pale and bulging areas of substantial hardness) impair both the appearance and technological traits of breast meat. This review evaluates the consequences of genetic selection on muscle traits and describes the relevance of major breast abnormalities on nutritional, technological, sensorial and microbial characteristics of raw and processed meat.
An overview of poultry industry in Pakistan
- J. HUSSAIN, I. RABBANI, S. ASLAM, H.A. AHMAD
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- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 02 December 2015, pp. 689-700
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The poultry sector is an important and vibrant segment of agriculture in Pakistan with a significant contribution to the national GDP (1.3%). Commercial poultry production in Pakistan started in the 1960's and has been providing a significant portion of daily proteins to the Pakistani population ever since. During its evolution the industry enjoyed promotional policies of the Government, but has faced several challenges such as disease outbreaks and retail price fluctuations. Despite its important role in the country's economy, not a single scientific study is available on its evolutionary history. The data available in this regard are scattered and lack reliability. This review is an effort to encompass the history of the overall growth of the poultry industry in Pakistan, its present status (2012 statistics) and future directions and challenges. This article may serve as the basic source of information on Pakistan's poultry industry achievements. It will also guide poultry experts and policy makers for developing strategic planning for further growth of the industry.
Qualitative attributes and consumer perception of organic and free-range poultry meat
- C. CASTELLINI, C. BERRI, E. LE BIHAN-DUVAL, G. MARTINO
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- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 12 November 2008, pp. 500-512
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The effect of the organic production (OP) system on the qualitative characteristics and consumer perception of poultry meat is reviewed in the following paper. Age at slaughtering, genetic strains (fast- and slow-growing), physical activity, and pasture intake are key factors in determining meat quality. In conventional farming, fast-growing chicks are generally used, but these are not suitable for OP, since they may develop health and welfare problems, the most recurrent of which are leg disorders and lameness. Conversely, use of slow-growing strains in OP has positive repercussions on both animal welfare and product qualitative characteristics (eating quality and appearance) perceived by consumers. From the published data it can be concluded that organic poultry can be a viable production method, especially if suitable changes in EU Regulation. 1804/99 are made. The market opportunity for both organic and free range poultry products does not yet seem to be fully developed. We suggest that structured integration between production and consumption stages could resolve this problem.
Sustainable development perspectives of poultry production
- M. VAARST, S. STEENFELDT, K. HORSTED
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- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 02 December 2015, pp. 609-620
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The concept of ‘sustainability’ or ‘sustainable development’ is multi-dimensional, encompassing economic, environmental, social, and institutional governance aspects. The theoretical framework for this article on sustainability in poultry production is built on this multi-dimensional understanding of the concept, acknowledging that it is complex and contested. It is challenging to analyse or discuss the sustainability of one single sector within agriculture, because this sector is part of a global food system, and a systems approach is necessary. This article gives examples of elements which link to one or more of the four aspects, e.g., pollution and antibiotic use, biodiversity (environmental aspects), conditions for farm workers and animal welfare (social aspects), governance of the food chain (institutional aspects), and the development of poultry from a valuable food to a cheap staple food throughout major parts of the world (economic aspects). There are numerous potential pathways for sustainable development of poultry production. Poultry are living, sentient animals that can be well integrated into many different types of urban and rural farming systems, where they benefit from and contribute to such systems and to the livelihood of households around the globe, with special emphasis on women. Furthermore, local production provides potential for production with minimum transport and, concomitantly, minimum usage of fossil fuels. Among the terrestrial animals, poultry has the best conversion rate of feed to human food and the smallest environmental footprint in terms of energy and water use per kg meat or eggs produced.
Welfare of broilers: a review
- W. BESSEI
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- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 01 September 2006, pp. 455-466
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Selection for fast early growth rate and feeding and management procedures which support growth have lead to various welfare problems in modern broiler strains. Problems which are directly linked to growth rate are metabolic disorders causing mortality by the Sudden Death Syndrome and ascites. Fast growth rate is generally accompanied by decreased locomotor activity and extended time spent sitting or lying. The lack of exercise is considered a main cause of leg weakness, and extreme durations of sitting on poor quality litter produces skin lesions at the breast and the legs. Management factors which slow down early growth alleviate many welfare problems. Alternatively it may be considered to use slow growing strains which do not have the above mentioned welfare problems. Since growth is a main economical factor, there are problems of acceptability of these measures in the commercial broiler production. Stocking density is a central issue of broiler welfare. It is evident, that the influence of stocking density on growth rate and leg problems acts through its influence on litter and air quality. High moisture content of the litter enhances microbial activity, which in turn leads to increase of temperature and ammonia in broiler houses, and thus, high incidence of contact dermatitis. High stocking density impedes heat transfer from the litter surface to the ventilated room. This restricts the efficacy of conventional ventilation systems in alleviating heat stress. Lighting programmes with reduced photoperiods are considered essential for the stimulation of locomotor activity and the development of a circadian rhythm in the birds. Extended dark periods, however, reduce growth when applied in the first weeks of age. Compensation occurs when the time of the production cycle is substantially increased. Various methods to enrich the environment have shown only moderate effects on the behaviour and physical conditions of broilers.