Introduction
Although Japan has been considered as a non‑English‑speaking country (as part of the Expanding Circle in the Kachruvian model; Borlongan and Ishikawa Reference Borlongan and Ishikawa2021) and opportunities to speak English in daily life may be limited, English is nonetheless pervasive in public spaces, particularly on signage. Research on linguistic landscape (Landry and Bourhis Reference Landry and Bourhis1997), which examines the use of language on signage, has shown that English signage is ubiquitous in Japan (Backhaus Reference Backhaus, Heinrich and Ohara2019). While the recent surge in foreign visitors (36.9 million in 2024, the Japan National Tourism Organization) and foreign residents (3 million in 2024, the Immigration Service Agency in Japan; cf. Japan’s total population of 124 million) has impacted on English use in the broader sociolinguistic context of Japan, this study focuses on unique areas where distinctive patterns of language contact occur. This study examines English use on signage in the areas surrounding two U.S. military bases in Japan, Yokosuka Navy Base and Yokota Air Base, aiming to highlight the diverse functions of English that emerge through interactions between American residents and Japanese locals. While the use of English on signage can be found across the country, its use in these sites exhibits distinctive characteristics, comprising various English signs used for different purposes by both Americans and Japanese, and directed toward either group. This study seeks to uncover the complex roles of English, used both for informational purposes aimed at English speakers and for symbolic purposes that appeal to Japanese audiences.
The use of English on informational signage, such as guidance and traffic signs, is widespread across the country, reflecting language policy, the needs of English speakers, and its role as a lingua franca for non‑Japanese‑speaking immigrants and international tourists. Other functions of English on signage have also been frequently discussed in the literature (Hyde Reference Hyde2002; Backhaus Reference Backhaus2006; Dougill Reference Dougill2008; Nambu Reference Nambu2024). Drawing on shared social stereotypes and ethnocultural associations, English is often reported to serve symbolic purposes, representing modernity, progress, and globalization, as perceived by locals in non‑English speaking countries (Haarman Reference Haarmann1989; Piller Reference Piller2003). Such symbolic meanings of English are typically associated with specific business types that frequently employ English on their shop signs, including cafés, fashion and beauty retailers, and technology‑related shops (Dimova Reference Dimova2007; Lawrence Reference Lawrence2012; Tan and Tan Reference Tan and Tan2015; Lee Reference Lee2019), where English ‘adds an aura of sophistication and embellishment to their products/services’ (Manan et al. Reference Manan, David, Dumanig and Channa2017, 660). In Japan, symbolic uses of English signage are similarly found on the shopfronts of these types of businesses. However, as will be illustrated, in the areas examined in this study, such signage serves a distinct function by imbuing shops associated with American culture with a sense of authenticity, rather than conveying typical symbolic meanings such as modernity.
Global companies originating from English‑speaking countries, such as McDonald’s, also contribute to the global spread of English signage, a process sometimes referred to as ‘McDonaldisation’ of the landscape. This term describes how spaces become ‘indistinguishable non‑places’ due to the uniform design of English signage across global locations (Vandenbroucke Reference Vandenbroucke2016, 94–95). This study, however, presents cases in which such uniformed English signage used by global companies does not render the space unmarked, but rather helps highlight the marked sense of cultural distinctiveness of the area.
Since informational signs intended for Japanese audiences are written in Japanese, informational signs written solely in English are typically interpreted as targeting non‑Japanese and English‑speaking audiences. This is clearly the case when the English text takes the form of a long informative sentence. However, the use of non‑sentential English, such as single words or short phrases, especially on commercial signs, can be more ambiguous in terms of its intended audience, as the symbolic meanings of English are accessible to non‑English speakers in those contexts. Whether English signage is perceived as conveying information or symbolic meaning is said to partly depend on the audiences’ comprehension (Leeman and Modan Reference Leeman and Modan2009, 351), such as the perceiver’s level of English proficiency. Especially in cases of commodified language use, where cultural values associated with a language are leveraged for commercial purposes, such as conveying a sense of authenticity, the language on signage is typically aimed at audiences who do not speak it (Leeman and Modan Reference Leeman and Modan2009; Nie and Yao Reference Nie and Yao2024). In such cases, what matters is not the actual content conveyed by the language, but its symbolic meaning, which the audience is expected to interpret within a specific cultural context. This study will illustrate examples of English signage that symbolise and commodify American culture, targeting Japanese audiences.
Beyond linguistic materials, other semiotic resources play a vital role in contextualising and guiding the interpretation of signage. Jaworski and Thurlow (Reference Jaworski, Thurlow, Jaworski and Thurlow2010) use the term semiotic landscape to emphasise that semiotic materials are essential for understanding space. Therefore, this study also pays special attention to semiotic materials in the U.S. military base areas, including cultural items that evoke images of American culture.
In the areas surrounding the U.S. military bases, various commercial establishments coexist, some offering authentic products and services for Americans, and others commodifying American culture for Japanese tourists. Within the public spaces, English signage, both informational and symbolic, along with other semiotic materials used by these businesses, plays a central role in shaping a uniquely commodified environment infused with American culture.
Yokosuka Navy and Yokota Air Bases
Across Japan, approximately 100,000 U.S. citizens, including military personnel, civilian workers, and their dependents, reside in areas within and surrounding U.S. military bases (U.S. Forces Japan n.d.). Both Yokosuka U.S. Navy Base and Yokota U.S. Air Base were established shortly after World War II in 1945 (Pacific Air Forces n.d.; United States Navy n.d.). There are approximately 24,000 U.S. military and civilian personnel at Yokosuka Navy Base and 15,000 at Yokota Air Base (United States Navy n.d.; U.S. Department of Defense n.d.). These individuals reside both within and outside the bases, where housing and commercial facilities serving them are well established, reflecting a close relationship with the surrounding local communities that has developed over the past 80 years.
This study focuses on areas surrounding two commodified streets located adjacent to the U.S. military bases: Dobuita‑dōri (dobuita ‘drainboard’ and dōri ‘street’), which faces the main gate of Yokosuka Base, and Base‑side street, which runs alongside Yokota Base. After the war, both streets became lined with bars, souvenir shops, and clothing stores, catering to Americans living nearby. Today, they serve diverse functions, including real estate offices, car dealerships, and tattoo shops, contributing to a unique atmosphere where American culture blends with the Japanese townscape. In addition, these streets have become tourist destinations for Japanese visitors, offering entertainment through American food and cultural experiences. The streets are visually marked with the abundant use of English and other semiotic materials associated with American culture. As will be discussed below, the coexistence of English signage directed at both Americans and Japanese visitors collectively shapes the complex linguistic landscapes of these areas. In the following, I analyse examples of English signage observed in the fieldwork conducted in January 2025, with particular attention to those that shape the unique linguistic landscape of areas surrounding the U.S. military bases, examining their communicative functions and presumed target audiences.
Informational English signage for Americans
Reflecting the dense American population in these areas, unique informational English signs targeting Americans, distinct from those in other parts of Japan, were observed across various social domains. While traffic signs in Japan are typically either monolingual Japanese or bilingual Japanese‑English with prominence on Japanese, a notable exception in these areas is the presence of monolingual English traffic signs. Figure 1 shows an example of such signage found on Base‑side Street alongside Yokota Base, displaying the message ‘Reduce speed ahead’ with no corresponding Japanese signs nearby.
Figure 1. Monolingual English traffic sign located next to Yokota Base.
Figure 2 presents an example of bilingual English‑Japanese warning signage, with English given prominence by being placed at the top. The sign marks the boundary of the base, stating that entering without permission is a violation of Japanese law. The use of English on these informational signs are clearly intended for English readers, primarily targeting Americans living nearby. English signs for churches also contribute to the distinctiveness of the areas.
Figure 2. Bilingual English-Japanese warning sign on the Yokota Base wall.
The prominence of English in the examples shown in Figure 3 suggests that English is the primary language for their services, reflecting their target community. The sign on the right in Figure 3, which includes Japanese, states in Japanese ‘The service is conducted in English, with Japanese interpretation available via headphones’, reflecting their openness to welcoming Japanese locals into the American church community.
Figure 3. Signs for churches near Yokosuka Base (left) and Yokota Base (right).
Real estate and car dealership signs written in monolingual English, as shown in Figure 4, were highly conspicuous throughout the areas, as such signage is rarely seen elsewhere in Japan. These signs exemplify how local businesses accommodate the specific needs of Americans in the areas. Their use of monolingual English to convey information, especially the full sentence in smaller font ‘Quality Cars to fit your Budget’ on the sign in Figure 4‑right, indicates that these businesses primarily target Americans rather than Japanese locals. As a semiotic element, the American flag on the signs aids in conveying the businesses’ identity and the authenticity of their services. In addition to the signs shown in Figure 4, car prices at dealerships are displayed in USD rather than Japanese Yen, clearly indicating that their primary target customers are Americans.
Figure 4. Monolingual English signs at a real estate office (left) and at a car dealership (right) near Yokosuka Base.
Within the Japanese cultural context, Chinese restaurants tend not to use English on their signs, as its symbolic meanings, such as modernity, progress, and globalization, do not align with how their services are positioned to appeal to Japanese customers. However, the signs in these areas, as shown in Figure 5, foreground English for its informational value to American customers. The presence of English on Chinese restaurant shopfronts adds a unique characteristic to the linguistic landscapes of the areas, differentiating them from the typical Japanese townscape. While these Chinese restaurants display both Japanese and English, one Filipino restaurant near the main gate of Yokosuka Base, as shown in Figure 6, displays its shopfront with only English signs. Its language choice, marked by the absence of Japanese, suggests that its primary target customers are Americans.
Figure 5. Unusual English use on Chinese restaurant signs near Yokosuka Base (left) and Yokota Base (right).
Figure 6. Monolingual English signs at a Philippine restaurant near Yokosuka Base.
There are some cases of English signage, where it is unsure if its target audience is Americans or Japanese, or both. The main shop sign ‘Country Bar George’s – Home away from home’ on Dobuita‑dōri, a popular tourist destination, shown in Figure 7, is one such example, as it can be interpreted as informational for Americans or as a symbolic appeal to Japanese customers. There are smaller signs at its shopfront, written entirely in English, as shown in Figure 7, such as ‘No outside food or drinks’ and ‘Warning – Under age of 20 years old are not allowed to come inside George’s Bar at all time’ with a full sentence. These are clearly informational aimed at Americans, and the absence of equivalent Japanese signs may suggest that Americans are the primary target customers.
Figure 7. Monolingual English signs at a bar near Yokosuka Base.
Another culturally distinctive feature of the areas is the unusually high concentration of tattoo shops. In contrast to traditional Japanese tattoos (irezumi in Japanese), western‑style tattoo shops clearly signal their identity through English signage. The English text ‘WALK IN WELCOME’ on the shop window, shown in Figure 8, conveys a practical message directed at English speakers, setting it apart from the symbolic role that English serves in appealing to general Japanese audiences, which will be discussed in the next section.
Figure 8. Monolingual English signs at a tattoo shop near Yokosuka Base.
Branding the areas with English to commodify American culture
While the informational use of English on signage primarily targets Americans living nearby, its symbolic use is directed at broader Japanese audiences. As discussed earlier, symbolic uses of English signage are commonly found across Japan, typically limited to specific business types, such as cafés and hair salons, where English symbolises modernity and globalisation. In contrast, the areas examined in this study, particularly Dobuita‑dōri and Base‑side Street, which serve as tourist destinations, are lined with shops that commodify American culture, including those where English signage is strategically used by Japanese shop owners to appeal to Japanese consumers. This symbolic use of English is a key component in constructing these spaces as tourist destinations. Such examples, as shown in Figure 9, include an American antique shop and a military goods shop, both owned by Japanese individuals. The English sign at the antique shop in Figure 9‑left is accompanied by semiotic elements on the wall, i.e., a large Coca‑Cola bottle and cap, as well as its shopfront displaying American antique goods aimed at Japanese customers who are enthusiastic fans of such items. Their products, such as vintage posters, are carefully curated to evoke a nostalgic image of old America. Within this context, the use of English on signage functions as a means of commodifying American cultural elements for Japanese audiences, rather than to evoke the typical symbolic meanings of English such as modernity and globalisation. The military goods shop in Figure 9‑right is located on Dobuita‑dōri near Yokosuka Base, an area lined with similar shops selling military goods and clothing. Like many other shops on the street, this shop also sells Sukajan, a signature jacket of Yokosuka featuring large embroidery, such as dragons and tigers, on the back. Once called ‘souvenir jackets’ by Americans military personnel as they were originally made as souvenirs for Americans, they now serve as popular souvenirs for Japanese tourists. The shop name ‘Fuji’ is adorned with the English phrase ‘ANYTIME BABY …’ along with an image of an American woman. The English phrase does not convey any informational content about the shop, but the presence of English on the shopfront functions to create an American atmosphere that appeals to Japanese tourists.
Figure 9. Monolingual English signs at a Japanese-owned American antique shop near Yokota Base (left) and a Japanese-owned military goods shop near Yokosuka Base (right).
A furniture shop owned by a Japanese individual on Dobuita‑dōri near Yokosuka Base, shown in Figure 10, sells American‑style goods at its shopfront and on the first floor while furniture is sold on the second floor. While its main shop sign is written in Japanese script as ‘Ōta kagu ten’ (Ōta furniture shop) on a wooden wall with a traditional Japanese aesthetic, the shopfront also features an English sign ‘OPEN’ with smaller text ‘OOTA KAGU’ (Ōta furniture) and ‘U.S. GOODS’. This serves as a good example of a strategic adaptation to the street’s ambiance aimed at attracting Japanese tourists into the shop.
Figure 10. A Japanese furniture shop integrating English signs near Yokosuka Base.
The notable presence of many hamburger shops further characterises the areas, representing another example of commodified American culture accompanied by the foregrounded use of English with semiotic elements symbolising American culture. One such example, shown in Figure 11, is the shopfront of a hamburger restaurant. The main shop sign is monolingual English, and menu items such as ‘Trump Burger’ and ‘Kamala Harris’s Mac’n Cheese Burger’ along with their faces, featuring the presidential election in 2024, collectively create a commodified American cultural entertainment space catering to Japanese consumers. In addition, figures of Batman at the entrance and Spiderman on the wall demonstrate a deliberate use of semiotic elements drawn from American popular culture, reinforcing the symbolic use of English texts to appeal to Japanese audiences.
Figure 11. Semiotic elements decorating a hamburger restaurant near Yokosuka Base.
Beyond these occasional decorative elements, the areas are filled with items that evoke American culture, such as images of the American flag and replicas of the Statue of Liberty, as shown in Figure 12. Together, the use of English on signage, along with these semiotic elements, contribute to creating a unique landscape imbued with commodified American culture.
Figure 12. Semiotic elements symbolising America on Dobuita-dōri near Yokosuka Base (left, centre) and on Base-side street near Yokota Base (right).
The last example is an American hamburger chain ‘Carl’s Jr.’, shown in Figure 13, found near Yokosuka Base. The presence of its English signage may be seen as an example of ‘McDonaldisation’ of the linguistic landscape, as its English signs and logo are uniform across global locations. However, unlike more commonly found chains such as McDonald’s and Starbucks, the rare presence of Carl’s Jr. in Japan may instead be perceived by Japanese visitors as contributing to the distinctiveness of the area characterised by authentic American culture.
Figure 13. English signage at a hamburger chain restaurant near Yokosuka Base.
Conclusion
This short article has explored the linguistic landscapes of areas surrounding U.S. military bases in Japan as unique sites of dynamic language contact between Americans and Japanese via signage. It examined how English signage serves diverse functions, such as informational and symbolic, used by both Americans and Japanese and directed toward either group. The distinctiveness of English signage in these areas can be understood in two key ways. First, informational English signage targeting Americans is prominent and unusually visible compared to other parts of Japan, reflecting the dense American population. This includes monolingual English traffic signs, church signs prioritising English, and unexpected uses of English on Chinese restaurant signage. Second, the symbolic role of English in the areas is not to signal modernity or globalisation, as is often the case in other places in Japan, but rather to commodify American culture for Japanese tourists, especially in commercial and entertainment spaces along Dobuita‑dōri and Base‑side Street. In this context, English contributes to constructing a unique landscape that evokes an authentic image of American culture, reinforcing the area’s appeal to Japanese visitors.
This article has also highlighted examples in which English is used by Japanese shop owners and directed at Japanese audiences primarily for symbolic purposes. These examples are significant because English does not function as a means of communication in the informational sense; rather, its presence serves as a semiotic resource that conveys American cultural values within the socio‑cultural context shaped by the areas surrounding the U.S. military bases. In such cases, Japanese audiences are not expected to fully comprehend the linguistic content. Instead, they are expected to interpret the use of English through shared cultural frameworks that associate it with a commodified form of ‘authenticity’, that is, Japanese tourists are expected to recognise that the English signs at shopfronts are not directed at Americans living nearby, but rather at themselves as the intended customers of the shops. This underscores not only the symbolic power of English in shaping the visual and cultural landscape of these areas, but also its diverse roles that extend beyond conveying linguistic meaning, particularly in non‑English‑speaking countries like Japan.
Taken together, the observed informational and symbolic uses of English signage, alongside other semiotic materials, construct a rich linguistic landscape shaped by dynamic language contact and the multifaceted functions of English, including both the ‘authentic’ use of English in communication with Americans and the ‘commodified authenticity’ conveyed through English employed by Japanese shop owners to appeal to Japanese audiences.
SATOSHI NAMBU is a Lecturer at Monash University, Australia. Prior to this role, he was a postdoctoral researcher with the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) and an adjunct researcher at the National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics (NINJAL). His research interests focus on the dynamics of language variation, particularly how linguistic variants are used in linguistic and social contexts and how they contribute to language change. In addition to this work, he examines how diverse language use reflects and constructs identity and ideology. His recent linguistic landscape project investigates multilingual signage in relation to immigrant communities and international tourism. He has published in journals including Language Sciences, Linguistics, International Journal of Multilingualism, and Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. Email: satoshi.nambu@monash.edu
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