2.1. Literature search

A comprehensive search strategy was employed to identify experimental studies on FLA-reduction interventions. Three complementary search methods were utilized: database searching, backward citation chasing, and manual hand-searching. The search process was completed on July 30, 2025.

The search strategy employed the following primary keywords: foreign language anxiety, L2 anxiety, second language anxiety, language anxiety, reading anxiety, writing anxiety, listening anxiety, speaking anxiety, and classroom anxiety. Each of these terms was combined, using the Boolean operator “AND,” with a set of secondary keywords related to intervention outcomes: reduction, reducing, decrease, decreasing, lowering, relieving, relief, alleviate, and alleviating. Variants of these terms were included to maximize search sensitivity and ensure comprehensive coverage. Searches were carried out in the following databases: Web of Science, ScienceDirect, ProQuest, and ERIC. No restrictions were placed on publication date at this stage. After duplicate records were removed, the search yielded 684 unique studies.

Backward citation chasing was conducted by systematically reviewing the reference lists of two recent systematic reviews on FLA-reduction interventions (Toyama & Yamazaki, Reference Toyama and Yamazaki2021a; Xiong et al., Reference Xiong, Zhang, Zhao, Liu, Guan, Sui, Feng and Lee2024). In addition, manual hand-searching was undertaken in nine leading journals in applied linguistics and language education: Applied Linguistics, Foreign Language Annals, Language Learning, Language Assessment Quarterly, Modern Language Journal, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, RELC Journal, TESOL Quarterly, and Language Teaching Research. Across all three search strategies, a total of 724 studies were identified for initial screening.

2.2. Inclusion and exclusion criteria

To ensure methodological rigor and consistency, a set of predefined inclusion criteria was applied during full-text screening. Studies were eligible for inclusion if they met all of the following conditions: (1) participants comprised a student population; (2) FLA was measured using a validated scale, including general FLA or skill-specific anxieties (i.e., speaking, reading, writing, or listening); (3) the study reported quantitative outcomes; (4) the study employed an intervention in which some or all participants were exposed to a treatment aimed at evaluating its effects; (5) the intervention specifically targeted the reduction of FLA; (6) the full text of the study was available and accessible; (7) the study was published in English; and (8) the study was peer reviewed and published on or after January 1, 2015, in line with the present review’s focus on FLA interventions within the past decade. Studies failing to meet all inclusion criteria were excluded. Following the screening process, 65 studies were retained for full analysis (see Appendix A for a complete list).

It should be noted that many of the included studies rely on established self-report measures of FLA, most notably the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (Horwitz et al., Reference Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope1986). While this instrument has been widely used and has facilitated cumulative research, recent scholarship has raised important questions regarding scale quality, construct clarity, and psychometric transparency (e.g., Sudina, Reference Sudina and Sparks2025). These considerations should be kept in mind when interpreting intervention outcomes.

2.3. Study approach

This study adopts a critical narrative review approach to examine intervention studies aimed at reducing FLA. Several recent reviews have made important contributions in this area. For example, Toyama and Yamazaki (Reference Toyama and Yamazaki2021a), the first systematic review focused specifically on FLA-reduction interventions, mapped research trends, synthesized intervention types, and offered pedagogical implications based on studies published up to 2020. More recently, Xiong et al. (Reference Xiong, Zhang, Zhao, Liu, Guan, Sui, Feng and Lee2024) conducted a meta-analytic review examining overall intervention effectiveness and moderator variables, providing valuable quantitative evidence for the impact of instructional interventions on FLA. In addition, Sun et al. (Reference Sun, Alhowail and Beckmann2025) reviewed longitudinal studies from a dynamic perspective, demonstrating the malleability of FLA across multiple timescales and drawing attention to temporal and methodological considerations, while also covering a substantial number of experimental and intervention-related studies.

Building on and complementing these reviews, the present study places particular emphasis on critically examining existing FLA-reduction interventions through the lens of core psychological theories and emerging therapeutic practices, with the aim of advancing conceptual discussions of FLA beyond currently dominant frameworks and working toward a more coherent, psychologically grounded approach to supporting anxious language learners. Because the focus is on intervention mechanisms rather than causal directionality, the present review does not seek to resolve causal directionality between anxiety and achievement; such questions require longitudinal or experimental causal designs that fall beyond the scope of this synthesis.

In light of these research goals, a narrative synthesis was deemed the most appropriate methodological choice. The narrative approach enables a systematic yet interpretive integration of studies employing varied designs, offering a coherent, text-based synthesis and critical evaluation rather than a purely statistical aggregation (Popay et al., Reference Popay, Roberts, Sowden, Petticrew, Arai, Rodgers and Britten2006, p. 5). Given the field’s current need for both practical insights and theoretical innovation, a critical narrative review is essential for advancing understanding of how FLA interventions function and how future work might more effectively address learners’ emotional needs.

3.1. Interventions for emotion regulation

Emotion regulation interventions aim to equip learners with tools to manage their emotional responses in anxiety-inducing language-learning situations. These approaches are often informed by Oxford’s (Reference Oxford1990, Reference Oxford2011) framework of affective and meta-affective strategies, which emphasize cultivating positive emotional states, managing stress, and sustaining motivation. The core assumption is that enhancing learners’ self-management skills can help them cope with FLA.

One of the most comprehensive studies in this area is Bielak’s (Reference Bielak, Pawlak and Mystkowska-Wiertelak2018) yearlong quasi-experimental investigation involving 23 English majors at a Polish university. The intervention included training in relaxation techniques, positive self-talk, and mood management. Despite the small sample size, results showed a significant increase in the use of affective strategies and a corresponding decrease in FLA, suggesting the potential of such interventions for long-term change.

Similarly, Mostafavi and Vahdany (Reference Mostafavi and Vahdany2016) examined the effects of affective strategy instruction, such as deep breathing, visualization, and affirmations, on Iranian English as a foreign language (EFL) learners. While learners in the experimental group improved their oral proficiency, they also reported heightened anxiety levels compared to the control group. This paradoxical outcome implies that increased emotional awareness may initially intensify anxiety before learners develop the skills to regulate it effectively.

Among affective strategies, positive self-talk has received particular attention. Abood and Abu-Melhim (Reference Abood and Abu-Melhim2015) integrated structured self-talk exercises into EFL instruction for Jordanian learners, finding that students who regularly affirmed their abilities and reframed challenges experienced significant reductions in FLA. Likewise, Toyama and Yamazaki (Reference Toyama and Yamazaki2021b) observed decreased anxiety among Japanese university students after incorporating positive self-talk into a broader intervention.

In recent years, the rise of positive psychology in SLA has inspired a range of interventions designed to enhance emotional well-being as a means to reduce FLA. These include contemplative practices (Scida & Jones, Reference Scida and Jones2017), mindfulness meditation (Morgan & Katz, Reference Morgan and Katz2021), pranayamic breathing—a yogic breathing practice involving controlled regulation of breath and attention (Tasan et al., Reference Tasan, Mede and Sadeghi2021), and reflective practices such as recalling past language-learning successes (Jin et al., Reference Jin, Dewaele and MacIntyre2021).

Several of these interventions have yielded promising results. Jin et al. (Reference Jin, Dewaele and MacIntyre2021) found that Chinese EFL learners who engaged in weekly reflective writing about past language-learning successes reported significantly lower FLA than those receiving standard instruction. Tasan et al. (Reference Tasan, Mede and Sadeghi2021) likewise demonstrated that pranayamic breathing significantly reduced both FLA and test anxiety in Turkish university students, while also improving reading and listening comprehension. Along similar lines, Li and Xu (Reference Li and Xu2019) showed that a positive psychology-based emotional intelligence intervention enhanced positive classroom emotions and alleviated negative emotions, including FLA, among Chinese EFL learners.

However, findings from other studies have been mixed. Scida and Jones (Reference Scida and Jones2017) found that although students exposed to contemplative practices reported enhanced classroom climate and better exam performance, no significant reduction in FLA was observed. Likewise, Morgan and Katz (Reference Morgan and Katz2021) conducted a 13-week randomized controlled trial examining mindfulness meditation among U.S. Spanish learners. While the intervention led to increased mindfulness and was positively received, its effect on FLA was limited and inconsistent.

Taken together, these studies suggest that while emotion regulation interventions show potential, their success may hinge on careful pedagogical integration and alignment with learners’ emotional and cognitive profiles. At the same time, many existing interventions in this category remain implicitly control-oriented in how they are implemented and evaluated, framing anxiety as a problem to be reduced or managed. However, a growing body of psychological theory challenges the premise that anxiety must be controlled or suppressed. Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), for example, advocates embracing rather than avoiding distressing emotions such as anxiety (Hayes et al., Reference Hayes, Strosahl and Wilson2012). From this perspective, anxiety is not a problem to be eliminated but a natural experience to be acknowledged and integrated. This shift invites language educators to reconsider how FLA is framed in instructional contexts—moving from a primarily control-oriented framing to one that also fosters emotional acceptance and psychological flexibility.

3.2. Interventions for cognitive restructuring

Cognitive restructuring interventions aim to help learners identify and reframe irrational beliefs that contribute to FLA, replacing them with more realistic, constructive expectations about the language-learning process. This approach is grounded in findings that FLA is more strongly predicted by learner-internal variables than by external instructional factors (Dewaele et al., Reference Dewaele, Magdalena and Saito2019). That is, learners’ anxiety often stems not from the objective classroom environment, but from how they perceive and interpret their experiences. Traits such as perfectionism, competitiveness, fear of negative evaluation, low self-esteem, and maladaptive beliefs about language learning have all been linked to heightened FLA (Luo, Reference Luo2012). Following are common examples of irrational beliefs: “Everyone will laugh if I make a mistake,” “I’m the only one struggling in this class,” or “I must speak perfectly, or I will fail.” These thoughts are often automatic, unconscious, and deeply ingrained, making them resistant to change without structured cognitive intervention.

Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), developed by Ellis (Reference Ellis1962) and later adapted to language-learning contexts (Foss & Reitzel, Reference Foss and Reitzel1988), provides the theoretical foundation for many cognitive restructuring interventions. REBT encourages learners to examine internal dialogues, identify irrational thoughts, and replace them with balanced, rational perspectives. This process of cognitive restructuring shifts learners from fear-driven thinking toward increased self-compassion, resilience, and psychological flexibility.

Abood and Abu-Melhim (Reference Abood and Abu-Melhim2015) examined the effectiveness of REBT in group counseling sessions with Jordanian EFL learners. Sixty-four undergraduates with high anxiety were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups, balanced by gender. The experimental group received REBT-based training, which involved structured discussions to identify and challenge anxiety-inducing beliefs. The control group received no intervention. Posttreatment analyses revealed a significant reduction in FLA among students in the REBT group, highlighting the effectiveness of targeted cognitive restructuring in reducing anxiety.

Building on this work, Toyama and Yamazaki (Reference Toyama and Yamazaki2021b) implemented a mixed-methods study in Japanese university EFL classrooms. Their intervention was based on two premises: (1) irrational beliefs are central to FLA, and (2) anxiety can be alleviated through a four-stage cognitive process—recognition, expression, examination, and modification. The study involved 190 first-year students, divided into a treatment group and a control group. Over 6 weeks, the treatment group participated in two rounds of reflective practices, including cognitive–affective talk, reflective self-talk, and positive self-talk. The control group received standard instruction.

Quantitative data were collected using the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (Horwitz et al., Reference Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope1986), and qualitative data were drawn from written reflections and audio-recorded sessions. Results showed a significant reduction in FLA among the treatment group compared to the control group. Thematic analysis revealed meaningful shifts in learners’ emotional and cognitive patterns, with students reporting greater awareness of their irrational beliefs and increased ability to manage anxiety. As the authors noted, the intervention helped participants “change their negative feelings, perceptions, beliefs, and behaviors” (Toyama & Yamazaki, Reference Toyama and Yamazaki2021b, p. 338). Moreover, the program’s low implementation cost and minimal instructor training requirements make it feasible for widespread adoption.

While REBT-based cognitive restructuring interventions have demonstrated clear potential, an important and often overlooked question remains: to what extent can irrational beliefs be genuinely modified, and how? Although increased awareness is a critical first step, many learners continue to experience anxiety even after recognizing the inaccuracy of their beliefs. For example, consider a student who fears being laughed at by classmates. How effective is it to address this fear merely by demonstrating that such ridicule is unlikely to occur, or by encouraging the student to consciously replace irrational beliefs with more flexible, self-accepting ones (e.g., “I would prefer not to be laughed at, but I can tolerate it if it happens”)? Such discrepancies highlight the need for deeper investigation into the mechanisms and procedures through which irrational beliefs can be meaningfully transformed.

3.3. Interventions for skill building

Skill-building interventions aim to reduce FLA by directly enhancing learners’ proficiency and boosting self-perceived competence through meaningful language practice. This intervention logic resonates with skill-deficit accounts of FLA (e.g., Sparks, Reference Sparks2025), which link anxiety to underlying linguistic difficulties and lower L2 achievement, thereby motivating competence-building approaches. A substantial body of theoretical and empirical work has documented a close link between language achievement and anxiety, although the directionality of this relationship remains debated. While many researchers have proposed reciprocal relationships between anxiety and achievement (MacIntyre, Reference MacIntyre, Gkonou, Daubney and Dewaele2017), qualitative evidence from Yan and Horwitz (Reference Yan and Horwitz2008) suggests that anxiety may undermine achievement, whereas recent studies employing longitudinal modeling (e.g., cross-lagged panel analysis) indicate a unidirectional effect in which lower L2 achievement predicts higher anxiety (Alamer & Lee, Reference Alamer and Lee2024). Taken together, these findings suggest that the anxiety–achievement relationship may be bidirectional and context-dependent, and that different designs and analytic approaches may foreground different pathways.

Notably, self-perceived achievement often emerges as a stronger predictor of FLA than actual proficiency (Gardner & MacIntyre, Reference Gardner and MacIntyre1993), and studies have shown that anxious learners tend to underestimate their abilities (Luo, Reference Luo2018; MacIntyre et al., Reference MacIntyre, Noels and Clément1997). A meta-analysis by Zhou et al. (Reference Zhou, Chiu, Dong and Zhou2022) further confirmed a strong negative correlation between L2 anxiety and self-efficacy (r = −.70), underscoring the critical role of learner perceptions. As with all meta-analyses based primarily on cross-sectional studies, these findings describe associations rather than causal directionality and should be interpreted alongside longitudinal and intervention-based evidence. Accordingly, the present review examines skill-building interventions as pedagogical efforts to target a plausible mechanism—strengthening competence and/or self-perceived competence—with the goal of alleviating anxiety, rather than as evidence that any single causal pathway has been definitively established.

Given this backdrop, a wide range of FLA-reduction strategies focus on skill building. These include direct instruction in specific language skills/strategies (Alamer et al., Reference Alamer, Alrabai and Sparks2025; Hu & Zhang, Reference Hu and Zhang2026; Valizadeh, Reference Valizadeh2021), drama-based instruction (Galante, Reference Galante2018), flipped classroom (Gök et al., Reference Gök, Bozoğlan and Bozoğlan2021; Qiu & Luo, Reference Qiu and Luo2022), task-based learning (Aramaki, Reference Aramaki2024; Ismail et al., Reference Ismail, Wang and Jamalyar2023), computer-assisted language learning (CALL) (Jin, Reference Jin2024; Wang et al., Reference Wang, Zou, Du and Wang2024), innovative assessment methods (Heydarnejad et al., Reference Heydarnejad, Tagavipour, Patra and Farid Khafaga2022; Ritonga et al., Reference Ritonga, Farhangi, Ajanil and Farid Khafaga2022), authentic materials (Namaziandost et al., Reference Namaziandost, Razmi, Ahmad Tilwani and Pourhosein Gilakjani2022), and cultural instruction (Diep et al., Reference Diep, Zainal, Hassan, Sunarti, Al-Sudani and Assefa2022), highlighting the dual impact of these strategies on both skill development and anxiety reduction.

Among the most direct studies of this approach, Alamer et al. (Reference Alamer, Alrabai and Sparks2025) conducted an experiment in which one group of learners received extended vocabulary instruction while another followed standard classroom practices. Vocabulary gains in the experimental group were accompanied by significant reductions in FLA. Similarly, Valizadeh (Reference Valizadeh2021) reported that instruction in reading strategies improved reading comprehension and reduced anxiety among EFL learners.

Drama-based instruction has emerged as a promising approach for enhancing speaking skills and reducing FLA. Galante (Reference Galante2018) found that while both experimental and control groups in a four-month program saw reductions in FLA, students engaged in drama-based activities experienced slightly greater—though not statistically significant—improvement. Qualitative data further suggested enhanced self-expression and comfort with unrehearsed speech. Uştuk and Aydin (Reference Uştuk and Aydin2018) extended these findings by incorporating paralinguistic elements—such as facial expressions and gestures—into drama-based sessions, significantly reducing communication apprehension and fear of negative evaluation. Similar effects were found in younger learners by Kwiecień-Niedziela et al. (Reference Kwiecień-Niedziela, Polok and Mala2020), who reported that Polish primary students in drama groups experienced reduced speaking anxiety.

The flipped classroom also demonstrates potential for reducing FLA by increasing interactive, communicative practice during class. Gök et al. (Reference Gök, Bozoğlan and Bozoğlan2021) found that Turkish preservice English teachers in a flipped “Advanced Reading and Writing” course experienced significantly lower levels of classroom and reading anxiety compared to peers in traditional instruction. Qiu and Luo (Reference Qiu and Luo2022) likewise reported reduced listening anxiety and improved listening performance among Chinese EFL learners taught in a flipped format.

Task-Based Language Learning, which engages learners in meaningful, goal-oriented tasks, has been explored for its potential to reduce FLA, with mixed findings. Aramaki (Reference Aramaki2024) found that collaborative task repetition significantly reduced FLA in Japanese elementary learners, regardless of task modality. In contrast, Ismail et al. (Reference Ismail, Wang and Jamalyar2023) reported that while task-based instruction significantly improved reading performance in a university EFL context, mean-level anxiety scores did not show a statistically significant reduction. However, distributional analyses revealed a significant decrease in the proportion of high-anxiety learners in the treatment group (χ², p < .01; Cramer’s V ≈ .48), suggesting that task-based instruction may alleviate anxiety for a subset of learners even when average anxiety levels remain stable.

CALL-based interventions have drawn increasing attention for their capacity to blend language practice with technology-enhanced environments. Liu et al. (Reference Liu, Huang and Xu2018) found that cooperative digital storytelling reduced FLA and improved performance among Taiwanese learners, while individual storytelling increased anxiety. Wei et al. (Reference Wei, Kao, Lu and Liu2018) combined competitive gaming with personalized assistance and observed reduced situational and reading anxiety alongside vocabulary gains. Bashori et al. (Reference Bashori, van Hout, Strik and Cucchiarini2021) showed that Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR)-based websites helped Indonesian learners expand vocabulary and reduce speaking anxiety. Yang et al. (Reference Yang, Hsieh, Wong, Hong and Lai2022) found that an online simulation game significantly reduced FLA and enhanced vocabulary learning, especially for moderate- or high-anxiety learners. Hanafiah et al. (Reference Hanafiah, Aswad, Sahib, Yassi and Mousavi2022) discovered that Indonesian EFL learners who received online instruction via Skype significantly improved their vocabulary knowledge and speaking skills, and experienced reduced speaking anxiety compared to those taught through traditional methods. Jin (Reference Jin2024) demonstrated that integrating YouTube-based activities into EFL writing instruction reduced writing anxiety and enhanced proficiency in Korean students. Wang et al. (Reference Wang, Zou, Du and Wang2024) further showed that conversational AI chatbots, particularly those with humanlike avatars, improved self-perceived communicative competence and reduced speaking anxiety—even in the absence of actual performance gains.

Innovative assessment methods have shown promise in enhancing language performance while reducing FLA. Heydarnejad et al. (Reference Heydarnejad, Tagavipour, Patra and Farid Khafaga2022) found that performance-based assessment significantly improved EFL learners’ reading comprehension, motivation, self-efficacy, and reduced FLA. Ritonga et al. (Reference Ritonga, Farhangi, Ajanil and Farid Khafaga2022) compared interventionist and interactionist models of dynamic assessment and reported that both approaches enhanced speaking accuracy and fluency, increased motivation, and lowered anxiety compared to traditional assessment. In a CALL-supported public speaking course, Zheng et al. (Reference Zheng, Wang and Chai2023) demonstrated that the sequencing of formative assessment mattered: self-assessment followed by peer-assessment was more effective in reducing anxiety, while the reverse yielded greater gains in performance.

Other skill-building strategies emphasize meaningful content. Namaziandost et al. (Reference Namaziandost, Razmi, Ahmad Tilwani and Pourhosein Gilakjani2022) demonstrated that authentic reading materials significantly improved reading comprehension and reduced anxiety among Iranian EFL learners. Similarly, Diep et al. (Reference Diep, Zainal, Hassan, Sunarti, Al-Sudani and Assefa2022) showed that Indonesian students exposed to cultural-based instruction achieved better speaking performance and lower FLA than those in a noncultural instructional setting.

In sum, a wide array of skill-building interventions show promise in reducing FLA. From a psychological perspective, their effects can be interpreted as extending beyond gains in linguistic ability to include changes in learners’ self-perceptions of language use. Drawing on social cognitive theory (Bandura, Reference Bandura1986), repeated mastery experiences and scaffolded practice can strengthen self-efficacy beliefs, thereby reducing anticipatory threat and fear of failure. From a Cognitive-Behavioral Theory (CBT) perspective (Beck, Reference Beck2011), skill-focused instructional experiences may also operate as forms of gradual exposure to anxiety-provoking tasks, enabling learners to test and revise maladaptive beliefs (e.g., “I cannot perform in this language”) through concrete performance experiences.

Importantly, evidence suggests that anxiety reduction does not always mirror objective proficiency gains, as changes in self-perceived communicative competence may occur independently of measurable performance outcomes (e.g., Wang et al., Reference Wang, Zou, Du and Wang2024). Moreover, anxiety-related benefits may be unevenly distributed across learners, emerging as reductions in the proportion of high-anxiety students even when group-level mean anxiety scores remain stable (Ismail et al., Reference Ismail, Wang and Jamalyar2023), suggesting the importance of learner-internal mechanisms such as self-perceived competence in shaping intervention effects. At the same time, heterogeneity in instructional design, learner characteristics, and measurement approaches complicates efforts to identify a single, universally effective model of skill-building intervention. Taken together, these findings raise an important pedagogical question: how can instructional interventions be designed not only to build language skills but also to reshape learners’ perceptions of themselves as competent language users?

3.4. Interventions for classroom environment enhancement

Interventions aimed at creating a low-anxiety classroom environment are grounded in the understanding that classroom climate—defined by the quality of student–teacher and peer relationships, classroom norms, and instructional methods—plays a central role in learners’ emotional experiences (Luo, Reference Luo2012; Young, Reference Young1991). A supportive and inclusive environment can reduce fear of negative evaluation, increase learners’ willingness to communicate, and promote greater enjoyment in language learning. Unlike interventions focused on specific tasks or individual coping strategies, this category emphasizes the development of an emotionally safe learning community through diverse approaches, including the cultivation of a generally relaxed atmosphere (e.g., Valizadeh, Reference Valizadeh2022; Wei, Reference Wei2022), the promotion of student–student and student–teacher interactions (e.g., Jin et al., Reference Jin, Zhang and MacIntyre2020; Zarrinabadi & Rezazadeh, Reference Zarrinabadi and Rezazadeh2023), and the integration of CALL tools (e.g., Li et al., Reference Li, Liu and Zhang2020; York et al., Reference York, Shibata, Tokutake and Nakayama2021).

A range of classroom-based methods has been investigated for their effectiveness in fostering an overall low-pressure classroom climate and reducing FLA. Wei (Reference Wei2022) found that the Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP) significantly reduced FLA and enhanced classroom participation among business English majors. Similarly, Valizadeh (Reference Valizadeh2022) demonstrated that the use of sitcoms in EFL classrooms boosted learner motivation and significantly reduced both FLA and test anxiety. Other studies, however, revealed more nuanced or context-dependent outcomes. Dolean (Reference Dolean2016) found that teaching songs in French-language classes reduced anxiety only among students with initially high levels of FLA. Kralova et al. (Reference Kralova, Skorvagova, Tirpakova and Markehova2017) found that psychosocial training alongside pronunciation instruction reduced pronunciation anxiety and improved performance. A key element was the psychologist’s role in fostering psychological trust and a supportive environment. However, the need for trained psychological support raises concerns about the feasibility of implementing such interventions in typical language classrooms.

Research has also explored how fostering student–student interaction can help mitigate FLA. Jin et al. (Reference Jin, Zhang and MacIntyre2020) demonstrated that behavioral contracts promoting target language use among Chinese EFL learners significantly lowered FLA by reinforcing peer accountability and engagement. Ku and Chen (Reference Ku and Chen2015) found that collaborative editing on Google Wiki during transnational learning reduced both social and L2 anxiety, while Soleimanirad and Shangarffam (Reference Soleimanirad and Shangarffam2016) reported that Collaborative Reasoning discussions led to lower anxiety among Iranian pre-intermediate learners. However, peer-based interventions have not always yielded consistent results. Bailey and Cassidy (Reference Bailey and Cassidy2019) observed no significant anxiety reduction from peer feedback in writing contexts, and Yayli (Reference Yayli2017) found similar outcomes with group work. These mixed results suggest that while peer collaboration can support anxiety reduction, its success may depend on how interaction is structured, the nature of tasks, and learners’ prior collaborative experience.

Studies enhancing student–teacher interactions have shown more consistent success in reducing FLA. Nosratinia and Abdi (Reference Nosratinia and Abdi2017) found that portfolio assessment, which involved personalized, formative feedback from instructors, significantly lowered learners’ FLA and increased autonomy. Similarly, Zarrinabadi and Rezazadeh (Reference Zarrinabadi and Rezazadeh2023) demonstrated that providing multidimensional formative feedback—feed up, feedback, and feed forward—significantly reduced writing anxiety and enhanced motivation and self-efficacy. These findings underscore the importance of teacher responsiveness and emotional support in creating a low-anxiety classroom. Meanwhile, interventions that simultaneously target both student–teacher and peer relationships also show promise. Liao and Wang (Reference Liao and Wang2015) implemented a post-structural feminist pedagogical learning (PFPL) method that de-emphasized teacher authority and promoted dialogic learning, which led to reduced classroom anxiety and increased student satisfaction. Likewise, Chen et al. (Reference Chen, Wang, Chen and Wu2016) and Tang (Reference Tang2016) reported positive outcomes when collaborative activities were scaffolded with teacher guidance. Together, these studies suggest that fostering trust, open communication, and shared responsibility between students and instructors may be especially effective in mitigating FLA.

With the rise of digital learning environments, CALL tools have been increasingly used to reduce FLA by reshaping classroom interaction and alleviating face-to-face communication pressure. Studies have shown promising results: Ku and Chen (Reference Ku and Chen2015) used Google Wiki to facilitate collaborative writing, Hamzaoğlu and Koçoğlu (Reference Hamzaoğlu and Koçoğlu2016) employed podcasting, and Melchor-Couto (Reference Melchor-Couto2017) integrated Second Life, all reporting reductions in FLA. Li et al. (Reference Li, Liu and Zhang2020) found that the mobile platform Rain Classroom significantly lowered anxiety levels, while York et al. (Reference York, Shibata, Tokutake and Nakayama2021) demonstrated that voice chat, video chat, and virtual reality all contributed to anxiety reduction, though no significant differences were observed among modalities. However, not all CALL interventions have been successful. Kruk (Reference Kruk2016) found minimal affective benefits from the gamified platform Yoowalk, and Yu et al. (Reference Yu, Song and Chiu2020) reported no reduction in FLA when using Second Life for grammar instruction. These mixed findings underscore the importance of aligning technological tools with learners’ needs, task design, and classroom context.

Interventions in this category primarily seek to modify classroom conditions that are commonly associated with heightened FLA. The mixed results of such efforts reinforce a key insight from recent research: FLA is often more strongly predicted by learner-internal variables—such as self-efficacy and perceived competence—than by external classroom factors (Dewaele et al., Reference Dewaele, Magdalena and Saito2019). Moreover, the success of many low-anxiety classroom interventions may derive not only from enhanced emotional comfort but also from opportunities that strengthen skills and self-perceptions. For instance, the behavioral contracts promoting target language use in Jin et al. (Reference Jin, Zhang and MacIntyre2020) fostered a supportive classroom climate through enhanced peer interaction while simultaneously creating communicative opportunities that may have contributed to language development. This overlap highlights the blurred boundary between environment-focused and skill-building interventions, suggesting the need for future research to clarify which mechanism—emotional safety or linguistic empowerment—plays a more decisive role in anxiety reduction. A critical question also emerges: is minimizing anxiety by avoiding its triggers always desirable? When comfort is achieved at the expense of challenge, potentially limiting opportunities for linguistic growth and enhanced self-efficacy, the long-term effectiveness of such approaches may warrant closer scrutiny.

4.1. Is anxiety a problem to be eliminated?

FLA research has, to date, been conducted largely within the confines of the language education field, although it has increasingly drawn on concepts and methods from psychology in recent years. However, effectively supporting anxious language learners requires a deeper understanding of the nature and origins of anxiety, informed by contemporary psychological theories and therapeutic models. From a biological and evolutionary perspective, anxiety is viewed as an adaptive response rooted in human evolution. It developed as part of the “fight-or-flight” mechanism, enabling individuals to detect and respond to threats in their environment (LeDoux, Reference LeDoux1996). From this standpoint, anxiety is not inherently pathological; it becomes problematic only when the perceived threat is exaggerated, misinterpreted, or when the anxiety response is activated too frequently.

ACT holds that trying to control or eliminate internal experiences like anxiety often leads to more distress (Hayes et al., Reference Hayes, Strosahl and Wilson2012). Rather than battling anxiety, ACT promotes acceptance and encourages individuals to take purposeful action in line with their values. The focus shifts from eliminating anxiety to changing how one relates to it.

In Jung’s (Reference Jung and Jaffé1961, Reference Jung1968) analytical psychology, anxiety is understood as a signal of inner conflict, which offers a useful lens for interpreting anxiety experiences in language-learning contexts. Anxiety often arises when there is a clash between the conscious mind (the ego) and unconscious aspects of the psyche, such as repressed emotions or undeveloped traits—what Jung termed the “shadow.” When these neglected parts begin to surface, the ego may resist, resulting in fear or anxiety. This internal tension is a call for personal transformation and integration, particularly during times of life transition or identity change. Jung emphasized that anxiety should not be seen merely as a problem to be eradicated, but as a natural and necessary part of psychological development. He further suggested that anxiety can also emerge from a disconnection from the deeper Self—the inner source of meaning and wholeness. This disconnection can give rise to a sense of emptiness or existential anxiety. From this perspective, anxiety is not just a symptom to be suppressed, but a meaningful message from the psyche, indicating a need for growth and balance.

Drawing on a different intellectual tradition, Lin (Reference Lin2021, Reference Lin2024) offers a Daoism-inspired psychological perspective that resonates conceptually with Jung’s analytic understanding of anxiety as a signal of inner conflict. Lin’s work represents an emerging, integrative approach that synthesizes insights from Western depth psychology with Daoist philosophical concepts and is grounded in clinical practice and experiential observation within Chinese therapeutic contexts.

Within this framework, human beings are viewed as intrinsically whole and complete, with seemingly contrasting forces such as yin and yang understood as dynamically interdependent and mutually constitutive rather than truly oppositional. In this view, darkness and light—neither inherently good nor bad—are likewise understood as interdependent, with the deepest descent into darkness ultimately giving rise to illumination. From this perspective, negative emotional states such as anxiety and depression are conceived as phenomena bound to a particular moment and space in one’s personal history—a process that Lin refers to as a “regression phenomenon.” Episodes of intense anger, anxiety, or depression are understood as a return to early childhood experiences, often to moments of wounding within the family of origin. According to this view, when such regressed time–spaces are precisely identified and fully acknowledged at a subconscious level, they naturally dissolve, leading to the dissipation of the associated emotions. Consequently, anxiety is not to be resisted or suppressed; rather, it is to be observed with awareness, accepted as an integral part of human existence, and valued for its role in restoring a sense of wholeness. In this model, anxiety becomes a meaningful point of entry—a guide or clue—for exploring and ultimately transcending the unresolved experiences to which it points.

Therefore, anxiety is not simply a problem to be eliminated. It may reflect inner conflict or the brain’s natural response to perceived threat and, as such, warrants careful psychological understanding. Importantly, this perspective does not suggest that anxiety is beneficial or facilitative, nor does it advocate cultivating anxiety for motivational purposes. Instead, it emphasizes that attempts to eliminate anxiety often fail to address its deeper psychological roots. From this standpoint, anxiety remains an uncomfortable experience that warrants pedagogical and psychological support, but one that must be understood and worked through rather than merely controlled or reframed as advantageous. The goal is not to valorize anxiety, but to work through it by addressing its deeper roots.

However, research on FLA reduction has tended to frame anxiety primarily as a symptom to be reduced or overcome. Such an approach risks overlooking its potential psychological significance. While several FLA-reduction studies—particularly those informed by REBT—have demonstrated that anxiety can be linked to learners’ beliefs and self-perceptions, such work has largely focused on conscious awareness and deliberate cognitive restructuring. I argue that the field of FLA could benefit from a conceptual shift: rather than viewing anxiety solely as a negative emotion to be extinguished, we should begin to see it as a meaningful signal from the learner’s inner world—one that may point to subconscious beliefs, developmentally rooted emotional experiences, and unresolved inner conflicts that are not always accessible through conscious reflection alone. By doing so, we may not only alleviate anxiety but also open a pathway toward deeper self-awareness and psychological integration.

4.2. Is avoidance or suppression an advocated anxiety coping strategy?

Because anxiety is an inherently uncomfortable experience, it is not surprising that language learners often resort to avoidance or suppression as coping strategies (Kondo & Yang, Reference Kondo and Yang2004). A review of FLA-reduction interventions over the past decade suggests that many pedagogical and research-driven approaches have similarly emphasized strategies that align closely with avoidance and suppression. For example, emotion regulation techniques—such as relaxation exercises, positive self-talk, self-reward, and goal-setting—are frequently designed to suppress or neutralize anxiety rather than address its underlying causes. Similarly, efforts to create low-anxiety classroom environments have tended to focus on eliminating or minimizing potential triggers. Speaking in front of the class, often identified as a primary source of FLA, has even been avoided altogether in some instructional recommendations. Technology-enhanced tools (e.g., CALL) are likewise promoted as substitutes for real-time, face-to-face interaction, enabling learners to sidestep situations that provoke anxiety. However, insights from core psychological theories indicate that while such strategies may provide short-term relief, they are widely regarded as maladaptive in the long term.

In CBT, for example, avoidance and suppression are seen as central mechanisms that sustain anxiety (Beck, Reference Beck2011). Avoidance prevents individuals from discovering that feared situations are often safe, thus reinforcing the anxiety cycle. Suppression—efforts to push away anxious thoughts or feelings—can backfire, intensifying the unwanted emotion through what is known as the “rebound effect.” In contrast, CBT encourages gradual exposure to feared situations, such as speaking in a foreign language, as a more effective and sustainable coping strategy.

Psychodynamic theories also view avoidance and suppression—such as repression and denial—as defense mechanisms that can inhibit personal growth (McWilliams, Reference McWilliams2011). While these defenses may protect the ego from temporary distress, they can prevent deeper understanding and integration of unconscious conflicts. From this perspective, long-term psychological health depends on bringing hidden thoughts and feelings into conscious awareness.

Similarly, Jungian/analytical psychology emphasizes the importance of confronting rather than avoiding the “shadow”—the unconscious parts of the personality that are often denied or repressed. Jung (Reference Jung and Jaffé1961, Reference Jung1968) argued that avoidance leads to inner imbalance, while psychological growth (or individuation) requires self-awareness and integration of all parts of the self. Anxiety, in this view, is not a symptom to be avoided or suppressed but a signal of the psyche’s need for development.

Lin (Reference Lin2021, Reference Lin2024) also cautions against coping strategies that rely on avoidance, suppression, or superficial reframing, which he terms “counteractive strategies.” Drawing on a medical metaphor, he argues that such approaches resemble placing a bandage over an abscess: while the surface may appear smooth and healed, the underlying condition remains and may continue to deteriorate. From this perspective, sustainable emotional resolution requires confronting anxiety directly, tracing it back to its source, and processing it fully. Only through this process can the underlying distress be integrated rather than merely concealed, allowing negative emotions to be transformed into a constructive part of psychological well-being.

To summarize, contemporary psychological and therapeutic models suggest that avoidance and suppression may offer short-term comfort but do little to address anxiety at its core and may even exacerbate it over time. This is not to dismiss the value of relaxation or positive thinking, which can alleviate mild anxiety and help learners feel more at ease. Nor is the importance of a supportive classroom environment in question. Language learning, particularly speaking, is a high-stakes social endeavor where vulnerability and performance anxiety often intersect. Caring, inclusive, and nonjudgmental practices are essential. However, if efforts to reduce anxiety result in avoiding valuable learning opportunities, educators must carefully reconsider the trade-offs. Rather than prioritizing comfort at the expense of communicative development, instructors should aim for a balanced approach that combines emotional safety with cognitive and linguistic challenge. Through carefully scaffolded activities, learners can be gradually prepared for more anxiety-provoking yet essential tasks, such as face-to-face speaking activities.

4.3. Can low self-perceptions and irrational beliefs be rectified?

In contrast to emotion regulation and classroom environment modification strategies, skill-building and cognitive restructuring interventions do not focus on avoiding or suppressing anxiety. Rather, they are predicated on the view that low self-perceptions and irrational beliefs are primary contributors to FLA and therefore must be addressed directly. Skill-building interventions seek to strengthen learners’ self-perceptions through positive learning experiences and improved language achievement, whereas cognitive restructuring interventions focus on identifying and altering irrational beliefs. These approaches raise a critical question: can low self-perceptions and irrational beliefs be effectively modified, and if so, by what mechanisms?

Although related, self-perceptions and irrational beliefs are not identical. Drawing on social cognitive theory (Bandura, Reference Bandura1986) and self-perception theory (Bem, Reference Bem and Berkowitz1972), self-perceptions are formed through observing one’s own behavior and its consequences and are therefore dynamic rather than fixed. Most self-perceptions are conscious and accessible (e.g., “I’m not good at grammar”), though some may be semiconscious or implicit, especially when shaped by prior experiences, trauma, or cultural narratives. In SLA, self-perceptions may evolve into irrational beliefs when they become overly generalized, emotionally charged, or detached from evidence (e.g., “I always fail in oral presentations”).

Irrational beliefs, as defined by REBT (Ellis, Reference Ellis1962), are typically automatic, rigid, and absolutist—for example, “I must do well at all times” or “If I fail, it means I’m worthless.” Compared to self-perceptions, which are usually situational and modifiable, irrational beliefs are more deeply rooted in the subconscious and more resistant to change. In many cases, irrational beliefs may underlie and reinforce negative self-perceptions.

Nevertheless, both psychological constructs are amenable to change. Social cognitive theory provides a robust framework for understanding how learners’ beliefs about their capabilities, particularly self-efficacy, can be modified. Bandura (Reference Bandura1986) identified several ways to change self-efficacy, among which mastery experiences are the most powerful: when learners succeed, even in scaffolded tasks, they begin to revise their self-perceptions. Vicarious experiences, such as observing peers succeed in similar tasks, and verbal persuasion, such as encouragement from teachers and peers, also contribute to stronger self-efficacy. For instance, a student who initially believes “My Chinese is bad” may gradually revise this perception after achieving success in speaking tasks, receiving positive feedback, and witnessing classmates’ progress. Together, these experiences promote more accurate and constructive self-perceptions, ultimately reducing FLA and fostering learner confidence.

CBT is a widely used, evidence-based approach for addressing irrational beliefs and reducing anxiety (Beck, Reference Beck2011). CBT is grounded in the idea that our thoughts—not just our experiences—shape our emotions and behaviors. Irrational or distorted beliefs (e.g., “If I make a mistake, everyone will think I’m stupid”) can fuel anxiety, particularly in evaluative settings like language learning. CBT helps learners identify, challenge, and reframe these thoughts into more realistic ones (e.g., “Everyone makes mistakes—this is how we learn”). However, such cognitive restructuring takes time and repeated practice.

CBT employs techniques such as behavioral experiments and exposure therapy. Behavioral experiments allow learners to test their beliefs against real-life outcomes (e.g., speaking up in class and reflecting on what actually happened versus what was feared). Exposure therapy involves gradual and repeated engagement with anxiety-inducing situations to desensitize the emotional response and build coping confidence. In the language classroom, instructors can apply this principle by systematically introducing increasingly challenging communicative tasks. For example, learners might begin with pair work, then move on to group discussions, and ultimately progress to full-class presentations. This structured progression helps students build emotional tolerance and communicative confidence through gradual exposure.

Jungian psychology offers a different perspective. Rather than treating anxiety as the product of faulty thinking, Jung (Reference Jung and Jaffé1961, Reference Jung1968) regarded it as a meaningful signal from the subconscious. From this standpoint, the negative self-statements associated with anxiety would not be considered “irrational beliefs” in the CBT sense, but symbolic expressions of underlying unconscious complexes, often rooted in early formative experiences. Rather than asking how such thoughts can be corrected, a Jungian approach instead asks what the psyche is attempting to express through these beliefs and how they may have emerged during early development.

In Jung’s view, unconscious beliefs cannot be altered through logical reasoning alone. Change occurs not through suppression or replacement, but through the process of integration—bringing into awareness and reconciling the denied or “shadow” aspects of the self. For example, a learner who repeatedly thinks “I am terrible at languages” may be expressing a deeper, unacknowledged fear of failure or imperfection. Jung advocated methods such as dream analysis, journaling, and active imagination to foster conscious dialogue with unconscious material. Through this process of individuation, that is, the ongoing effort to reconcile inner conflicts and to discover meaning in emotional struggles, anxiety gradually diminishes as the individual becomes more whole.

Consistent with Jungian psychology, Lin (Reference Lin2021, Reference Lin2024) argues that intense emotions such as anger, anxiety, and depression are often associated with deeply internalized negative core beliefs (e.g., “I am incompetent,” “I am unworthy,” “I am not good enough,” “My language ability is poor,” “Others are laughing at me”). These beliefs are all buried in the subconscious at varying depths, with the deepest beliefs being the hardest to access. They typically originate in early childhood, often in the context of familial trauma. Present-day triggers can reactivate these subconscious beliefs, drawing the individual back into the psychological “time–space” of the original trauma. In such moments, the overwhelming emotions are understood as arising not from the present self but from the infant self that remains frozen in that earlier experience.

Lin contends that these deep-seated beliefs do not require rectification, as negative and positive beliefs, like yin and yang, coexist in the subconscious. Moreover, they cannot be simply overwritten at the level of conscious reasoning. Instead, they must be precisely located within the regressed time–space and fully acknowledged and “seen” within that context. To facilitate this process, he has developed a therapeutic approach called “seeing and expressing,” in which individuals are guided to identify and articulate their emotions with precision and depth, repeatedly posing reflective questions such as “What is this trying to tell me?” and “Which inner child needs to be seen?” Once these so-called “irrational beliefs” and associated trauma are fully “seen” at a subconscious level, they start to dissolve, integrate, and naturally lose their power to trigger anxiety.

An understanding of these psychological frameworks invites a more fine-grained interpretation of FLA-reduction strategies that emphasize skill building and cognitive restructuring. Both approaches represent an important advance over strategies that merely suppress or avoid anxiety. Skill-building interventions align with core principles of cognitive-behavioral exposure and social cognitive theory, particularly the roles of gradual engagement and mastery experiences in shaping self-perceptions. However, although most skill-building studies reviewed here report anxiety reduction alongside performance gains, a small number of studies suggest that the relationship is not perfectly one-to-one and may be mediated by learners’ self-perceived communicative competence and other learner-internal factors (e.g., Ismail et al., Reference Ismail, Wang and Jamalyar2023; Wang et al., Reference Wang, Zou, Du and Wang2024).

Cognitive restructuring interventions, often grounded in REBT, aim to help learners recognize, articulate, examine, and attempt to modify irrational beliefs. This represents a valuable move away from treating anxiety as a symptom to be eliminated and toward exploring its underlying causes. Yet the “modification” stage in such interventions typically relies on consciously replacing old beliefs with new ones, without addressing the subconscious origins of these beliefs. As Jung and Lin argue, strategies that operate solely at the level of conscious reasoning may bring only short-term relief. Without accessing and reconciling the emotional roots of irrational beliefs at a subconscious level, lasting change is unlikely. As such, REBT-based FLA-reduction interventions may be effective for mild anxiety or in the short term, but are less likely to benefit those with deeper, long-standing anxiety patterns.