Introduction
Weeds are plants that are adapted to growing in agricultural lands while not being specially cultivated (Tretyakova et al. Reference Tretyakova, Grudanov, Kondratkov, Baranova, Luneva, Mysnik, Khasanova, Yamalov and Lebedeva2020). According to the Weed Science Society of America, a weed is “a plant that causes economic losses or ecological damage, creates health problems for humans or animals, or is undesirable where it is growing” (WSSA 2023a). Weeds, due to their higher adaptability and resilience, pose a persistent threat to agricultural production.
Weed science knowledge can be divided into three main categories: applied, fundamental, and socioeconomic (Jordan et al. Reference Jordan, Schut, Graham, Barney, Childs, Christensen, Cousens, Davis, Eizenberg, Ervin and Fernandez-Quintanilla2016). Applied knowledge includes agronomy and weed science, which deals with the development and improvement of control or management methods using cultural, mechanical, chemical, and biological control, and integrated weed management (IWM) techniques. Fundamental aspects of weed science include key aspects of plant biology and ecology, such as genetics, dispersal mechanisms, and population and seedbank dynamics. The research into these fundamental aspects provides a better understanding of weeds’ life cycles to develop/optimize effective management programs. Socioeconomic knowledge includes topics within sociology and economics that deal with weeds’ impacts and consequences of effective or ineffective management regimes in society (Jordan et al. Reference Jordan, Schut, Graham, Barney, Childs, Christensen, Cousens, Davis, Eizenberg, Ervin and Fernandez-Quintanilla2016).
Weed science is a relatively new discipline in plant science that has evolved significantly over the past few decades. The technological revolution in agriculture that is exemplified by the widespread development and quick adoption of synthetic herbicides has greatly contributed to the establishment of weed science as a separate discipline. This discipline focuses on different approaches to weed control through the diversity of weed research, developments in weed science technologies, and obstacles to future technological advancements.
The effects of chemical weed control on on-farm management techniques, their impact on the goals, and programs for agricultural education and research are also covered under the weed science discipline. Weed science has offered success in the past by contributing to effective, reasonably priced, and secure technologies to manage weeds in a number of agronomic and environmental settings (crop types, weed densities, and weed types).
There are many universities worldwide that were specifically established to pursue education and research in agriculture and applied sciences, a prime example being the United States (U.S.) land-grant universities. Similarly, several big universities conducting teaching and research in multiple disciplines have dedicated organizational units (faculties, colleges, schools, institutes, centers, etc.) delivering education, research, and outreach in agricultural sciences. From a weed science point of view, several universities have focused on weed science departments, while others subsume weed science within the crop protection or agronomy departments. Also, different research institutes offer several services, from working on projects under ecology, biology, and management to providing extension services for controlling weeds and decreasing economic losses. This article presents precise knowledge about the aggregate number of universities, agricultural universities, and universities involved in weed science education worldwide. Moreover, a brief history of weed science and its scope, weaknesses, and prospects are also discussed in this review. In addition, updated information about books, conferences, and journals related to the weed science discipline is provided.
The synthesis of this information will provide an updated account of the progress and scope of weed science and the challenges it faces as a unique but very important subdiscipline of agriculture. This will help educators, researchers, practitioners, and prospective students to determine the value and potential of weed science in crop protection. We also believe the information presented in this review will encourage the next generation to engage in this rapidly evolving yet rewarding discipline of agricultural sciences.
History of Weed Science
Historical books and articles about weed science show that weeds have been known to exist for thousands of years, since the start of settled food production. During that time, humans also discovered that the output of their preferred crop, typically coarse-grain cereals, was highest when it was cultivated in the absence of competitive plants that grew in the same habitat. Such species would have been manually eliminated by our forebears to mitigate the yield reductions caused by weed competition. This was an early attempt to suppress weed growth in inhabited areas transitioning to an agricultural-based lifestyle.
Archeological artifacts and ancient writings also certify the decline in yield due to weeds and the use of several tactics for managing them (Radosevich et al. Reference Radosevich, Holt and Ghersa1997). By following the historical trajectory of weed science in Canada and the United States, Timmons (Reference Timmons2005) determined that before 1200 CE or even 1500 CE, only a small number of agricultural leaders and farming communities identified weeds as a major problem and developed an interest in weed management. However, the development of weed science as a separate field of study does not correspond with the presence of weeds in cropped and non-cropped areas. The history of weed research is likely less than 100 years old, paralleling the history of industrialized agriculture (Radosevich et al. Reference Radosevich, Holt and Ghersa1997). Some plant protectionists and weed scientists would argue that the invention of phytotoxic chemicals and herbicides for weed control marked the beginning of the scientific study of weeds. Early in the 20th century, sulfuric acid and inorganic copper salts were the first substances utilized to suppress weeds (Timmons Reference Timmons2005). The production of 2,4-D herbicide by Pokorny (Reference Pokorny1941) and the discovery of its herbicidal properties as a plant growth regulator by Hamner and Tukey in 1944 were the first accounts of a synthetic organic chemical used to manage weeds (Stephenson et al. Reference Stephenson, Solomon, Frank, Hsiung and Thompson2001). These events started planned weed management opportunities and, some would argue, the inception of weed science as a specific discipline.
Weed science as a discipline has succeeded in connecting university researchers, industrial researchers, university extension workers, and farmers to effectively introduce chemical weed control and other weed management practices. This integration can be considered as a model for pushing new technology into mainstream society. Wilfred W. Robbins was the professor who developed the first weed science course and co-wrote the first textbook on weed management, Weed Control, in 1942 (Zimdahl Reference Zimdahl2010). This book served as a source of the widespread introduction of weed science as a specific course and later as a separate discipline in the United States and worldwide (Zimdahl Reference Zimdahl2010). Alden Springer Crafts from the United States was the first person to claim the title of “weed scientist.” Robbins provided the necessary momentum to create the scientific study of weeds, but Crafts provided credibility to weed science through research work and prolific writing (Zimdahl Reference Zimdahl2010). George Knowles was the first person who worked full-time as a weed scientist in Canada (Timmons Reference Timmons2005).
Today, weed science is a well-established discipline, but it is still relatively smaller compared with allied crop protection disciplines such as entomology and plant pathology. In its relatively short history, this dynamic discipline has seen dramatic booms and busts from widespread adoption and prolific success of chemical herbicides to the rapid evolution of large-scale herbicide-resistance evolution across the globe challenging conventional, simplistic weed control programs. We are at the crossroads of ever-increasing herbicide-resistance issues, changing land use and management systems, and impressive technological advancements and digital disruption. On the other hand, significant progress has been made, and there is a further push to explore weed management implications of agroecology and integrated pest management (IPM) principles (Riemens et al. Reference Riemens, Sønderskov, Moonen, Storkey and Kudsk2022). These factors are shaping weed science as a highly interactive, holistic, and technologically advanced field of agricultural sciences.
Weed Science Education Worldwide
Globally, several educational institutes work in numerous disciplines. Higher (university-level) education particularly focuses on specialized, discipline-wise educational training and research. The United States alone has the highest number of universities accounting for 3,982 in the public and private education sectors (Table 1). Russia has 3,000 universities, 47 in the agriculture category. Underdeveloped countries in Asia and Africa still have less focus on agricultural studies. Overall, many universities were specifically established to pursue research and education in the field of agriculture, while many others have agriculture faculties offering different courses and degree programs related to agriculture.
Total number of universities, agricultural universities, and universities involved in weed science education worldwide. a
a The list of universities comes only from the countries that have a population of more than 5 million. Countries are ordered alphabetically.
From the weed science point of view, several universities have special weed science departments (Table 1), while other universities provide education on weed science aspects within crop protection, agronomy, and ecology departments. Also, different research institutes offer several services from working on projects under ecology, biology, and management to providing extension services for controlling weeds and decreasing their economic losses. Moreover, a lot of work has been compiled by several authors in the form of specific books that focus on weed ecology, biology, and management options (Table 2). Also, there are specialized journals and specific weed science societies (Table 3) that are working for the betterment of the weed science discipline.
List of some important books related to weed science
a The books are listed in descending order (newest to the oldest).
List of important weed science societies, their specific activities (including conferences/events/meetings, specific journals, educational resources), and their official website links.
Globally, approximately 7% of all universities that offer agricultural education have dedicated weed science departments that work on weed biology, ecology, and management (Table 1). Some universities also offer weed science degree programs or at least certain courses in degrees related to associated disciplines, such as plant protection, agronomy, and ecology. Substantial advances, such as separate weed science disciplines and known specialized journals and conferences in weed science, have been made worldwide. Also, there are international, regional, and national weed science societies that work to promote and encourage the development of weed- related knowledge and the impact of weeds on society. For example, the WSSA states that its basic purpose is that it “promotes research, education, and extension outreach activities related to weeds; provides science-based information to the public and policy makers; fosters awareness of weeds and their impacts on managed and natural ecosystems; and promotes cooperation among weed science organizations across the nation and around the world” (WSSA 2023b). Several authors have written comprehensive literature in the form of books (Table 2) and review articles (Buddenhagen et al. Reference Buddenhagen, Bourdȏt, Cripps, Bell, Champion, Dodd, Eerens, Ghanizadeh, Griffiths, Harrington and Heenan2022; Flessner et al. Reference Flessner, Burke, Dille, Everman, VanGessel, Tidemann, Manuchehri, Soltani and Sikkema2021; MacLaren et al. Reference MacLaren, Storkey, Menegat, Metcalfe and Dehnen-Schmutz2020; Westwood et al. Reference Westwood, Charudattan, Duke, Fennimore, Marrone, Slaughter, Swanton and Zollinger2018) that specifically cover the discipline of weed science.
Scope of Weed Science
Weed science is a broad field that addresses significant biotic stresses that can cause huge economic losses to the agricultural sector and economy of any country, leading to exacerbating the problem of food insecurity. In a comprehensive analysis, Oerke (Reference Oerke2006) reported that weeds potentially cause up to 34% loss to crop yields globally. These losses are much greater than those caused by insect pests and diseases that reduce crop yields by 18% and 16%, respectively (Oerke Reference Oerke2006). Due to their persistent nature, weeds are typically given less attention than they deserve. Farmers pay more attention to unexpected, unanticipated epidemics of insect pests or diseases, because they are less accustomed to their presence (Moss Reference Moss2019). Weeds, on the other hand, are often considered to be a “business as usual” kind of problem, overlooking the magnitude of damages they pose to crop productivity and quality. A parallel condition exists in the public healthcare sector: policy makers devote the most resources to handling acute diseases compared with chronic diseases, which usually receive little attention (Fernandez-Quintanilla et al. Reference Fernandez-Quintanilla, Quadranti, Kudsk and Barberi2008).
One of the greatest strengths of weed science is that it offers an arguable and problem-solving approach (Fernandez-Quintanilla et al. Reference Fernandez-Quintanilla, Quadranti, Kudsk and Barberi2008). In this context, this discipline can be considered a model that combines several disciplines and utilizes a systematic approach to resolve practical issues. In addition, the weed science discipline is an exceptional example of how to cover the gap between scientific knowledge and its practical management, offering nonfragmented scientific knowledge and practical advice and opportunities to the end-users.
Weed science has had great success in effectively, affordably, and safely managing the weeds in a wide range of crops. Although a huge portion of this achievement has been due to the availability of low-cost, effective synthetic herbicides, sole reliance on chemical control has led to the widespread herbicide-resistance evolution in addition to increasing environmental health concerns (Gaines et al. Reference Gaines, Duke, Morran, Rigon, Tranel, Küpper and Dayan2020). A variety of cultural, biological, physical, and IPM-oriented weed management techniques have also been developed and introduced at a commercial scale, as a result of coevolution with the societal request for more environment-friendly crop management systems. IPM is an interdisciplinary approach that involves pest management principles based on relevant knowledge and practices in agronomy, entomology, plant pathology, nematology, weed science, ecology, horticulture, economics, and systems science (Thill et al. Reference Thill, Lish, Callihan and Bechinski1991). Despite the heavy reliance on chemicals for weed management in broadacre crop production over the past few decades, weed research has been focusing on alternative approaches and their integration for effective IWM (Jabran and Chauhan Reference Jabran and Chauhan2018). In fact, Oerke (Reference Oerke2006) indicated that the higher efficacy of weed management compared with insect pests or disease management was because of the usage of several methods for controlling weeds.
Weeds are the masters of adaptation, hence it is critical to continuously track their evolution in order to better manage them. The focus on studying biology and ecology continues to grow, as it helps better understand shifting weed dynamics and behavior in response to climatic and management factors, ultimately helping in the development of new, improved weed management options (Westwood et al. Reference Westwood, Charudattan, Duke, Fennimore, Marrone, Slaughter, Swanton and Zollinger2018). Therefore, understanding weed biology and ecology is integral to sustainable weed management, as weed populations adapt and evolve in response to new selective pressures. Another important point to be made about weed management is that all these achievements have been accomplished with relatively few financial resources (Matloob et al. Reference Matloob, Safdar, Abbas, Aslam, Khaliq, Tanveer, Rehman and Chadhar2020).
Moving forward, weed science has immense scope as a discipline. In the wake of changing climate and mounting food security and food safety concerns around the globe, effectively managing weeds is as important or arguably more important than most other biotic and abiotic production constraints. With many modern digital technologies coming online, weed science could be at the forefront of smart mechanized farming. This presents numerous opportunities for the next generation of weed scientists, farmers, and practitioners, as well as entrepreneurs.
Costs of Weeds
Costs of weeds consist of weed management expenses as well as productivity losses due to weeds (Saunders et al. Reference Saunders, Greer, Bourdôt, Saunders, James, Rolando, Monge and Watt2017). Both these factors have a significant impact on the sustainability of productive land usage. Knowledge of the costs of weeds is important for (1) prioritization of key target weed species for research and management; (2) development of cost-effective weed control strategies in the light of benefit-cost analyses; and (3) logical allocation of funding for research, development, and extension (RD&E) in the weed science sector.
Economic yield losses in several crops due to specific weeds in a specific region or country are shown in Table 4. The estimate of the total cost of weeds to New Zealand’s agricultural economy was US$1.658 billion (Saunders et al. Reference Saunders, Greer, Bourdôt, Saunders, James, Rolando, Monge and Watt2017). In Australia, the financial cost of the 15 most important weeds in 7 agronomic crops was estimated to be AU$1.182 billion per year (Llewellyn et al. Reference Llewellyn, Ronning, Ouzman, Walker, Mayfield and Clarke2016). The key parts of this cost were management costs for herbicides, which accounted for AU$571 million, the competitive effects of residual weeds were AU$380 million, and tillage for weed control cost AU$206 million, while weed contamination of grain was a minor cost (AU$25 million) (Jones et al. Reference Jones, Vere, Alemseged and Medd2005).
Economic yield losses in selected crops/production systems caused by weed interference.
It is important to note that economic and social costs of weeds are often less studied and underestimated due to (1) no concerted effort in the quantification of such losses on large scales, (2) lack of reliable, consistent data, (3) prioritization of funding and resources for developing management tools instead of understanding the actual cost of weed infestations, and (4) limitations surrounding consistent, coherent methodologies and reporting.
Challenges in Weed Science
Weed science was shaped as a specific discipline in the 1950s and has been facing multifarious issues and challenges ever since (Chandrasena Reference Chandrasena2020). Although it is difficult to generalize challenges and problems facing this discipline across different geographic regions, the themes discussed in this section are frequently encountered and are broadly considered to be the major challenges in the field of weed science.
Lack of Knowledge of Weed Biology and Ecology
A weak understanding of the biology and ecology of weeds hinders the creation of scientifically sound strategies and techniques for weed control. This is mainly because there were previously very few human and financial resources available for fundamental weed research. For example, a large number of weed science organizations have been shut down or reduced in size across Europe in the past few decades (Fernandez-Quintanilla et al. Reference Fernandez-Quintanilla, Quadranti, Kudsk and Barberi2008). Until now, only a few European Union projects have specifically addressed weeds, while there are numerous programs targeting plant diseases and insect pests. On the other hand, major developed agricultural nations outside Europe, such as the United States, Canada, and Australia, have started to shift their focus to this area. For example, the Grains Research and Development Corporation (GRDC) in Australia and the U.S. Department of Agriculture–National Institute of Food and Agriculture (USDA-NIFA) have been funding some basic weed science research over the past decade or so. Having said that, RD&E funding for fundamental/foundational aspects of weed biology and ecology is disproportionately limited, hindering progress in this area.
Lack of Technical Knowledge among Farmers about Herbicides
Lack of technical knowledge among farmers about the use of herbicides is one of the major constraints in weed science, especially in developing countries across Asia-Pacific and Africa (Gharde and Singh Reference Gharde and Singh2021). Also, there is a dearth of studies about the knowledge and awareness of the safe use of herbicides in those countries. Lack of scientific understanding about herbicides, unawareness of more advanced weed management techniques, and ignorance of safety procedures for herbicide spraying are big obstacles in weed control. Similarly, the intoxication risk for workers with herbicides is high due to a lack of information about the formulation of chemical ingredients in some parts of the world (Machado-Neto Reference Machado-Neto, Price, Kelton and Sarunaite2015). Even in developed countries, issues like non-target damage due to herbicide spray drift are common occurrences. For example, massive dicamba drift/volatilization issues in soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.]-producing regions of the United States (Sterman and Featherston Reference Sterman and Featherston2022) and 2,4-D drift to cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) crops in Australia (Elmore Reference Elmore2023) have created massive socioeconomic problems in recent years. In the 2022 to 2023 season alone, damage to cotton crops caused by 2,4-D drift was estimated to be more than AU$100 million in Australia (Bradfield and Felton-Taylor Reference Bradfield and Felton-Taylor2023). These environmental and socioeconomic issues surrounding chemical weed control are significant for weed science, requiring robust, on-time RD&E as well as policy development, given that herbicides are still the backbone of any weed management program, especially in broadacre agriculture.
Smaller Trained Workforce in Weed Science
Unlike other crop protection disciplines, such as plant pathology and entomology, far fewer departments in agricultural institutions are entirely focused on weed science (Chauhan et al. Reference Chauhan, Matloob, Mahajan, Aslam, Florentine and Jha2017). Furthermore, very few university educators/researchers are charged with managing weeds in pastures, ornamental, aquatic, and forest environments. Additionally, degree-awarding institutions from different regions of a nation, particularly in developing nations, have nearly uniform weed science curricula that do not consider regional variations in crops and weed species, cropping systems, input levels, management practices, socioeconomic backgrounds, and farmer skill levels for managing weeds. Agricultural education, research, and farming are seeing a significant decline in interest from youth, which translates into and multiplies the problems for a small discipline like weed science.
The Absence of Proper Funding
Research efforts for studying and controlling weeds, which are both resource and time intensive, appear less appealing to funding organizations. With the exception of a few short-term bioassay studies, research on weed biology in the context of climate change is progressing slowly, particularly in terms of long-term, system-based trials. Such comprehensive studies necessitate an interdisciplinary approach due to their complex and time-consuming nature and therefore require significant funding, resources, and collaboration. Improper delivery of information is also a major weakness, because the knowledge becomes useless if it is not properly delivered to users (Coble Reference Coble1994). Not many countries have well-established, integrated extension and outreach programs facilitating problem-oriented research and real-time knowledge dissemination. There are very few successful examples of RD&E networks, organizations, or collaborations delivering pragmatic weed management outcomes across the globe. A coordinated network and public–private sector partnership for improved grains RD&E including weed management through GRDC in Australia is a good framework; however, funding is still highly competitive, and weed science gets a smaller portion. In the United States, established weed science programs at most land-grant universities and USDA–Agricultural Research Services (USDA-ARS) laboratories and increasing collaboration among researchers and industry are good models to follow for improved research outcomes and stewardship and expedited adoption of new weed management technologies/programs.
Overall, the absence of proper funding for state weed science programs is a significant barrier to building the type of research program needed in weed science. Burnside (Reference Burnside1993) described weed science as a stepchild due to the decline in research efforts and neglect of this discipline. The cuts in the funding of weed science projects appear to be inconsistent with the need, especially in Europe and the United Kingdom. There were as few as 10 principal investigators involved in full-time publicly funded weed research programs in England a few years ago (Froud-Williams Reference Froud-Williams, Hatcher and Froud-Williams2017).
Another problem is the lack of weed specialists and organizations directly advocating for weed science–related policy development and funding. Historically, weed science has been underrepresented in broader crop-, plant-, ecology-, and biosecurity-related professional societies, forums, and think tanks. Dedicated funding streams for weed science and better advocacy for this cause are necessary.
Challenging Job Market
Weed science has conventionally experienced the “new kid in town” syndrome (Fernandez-Quintanilla et al. Reference Fernandez-Quintanilla, Quadranti, Kudsk and Barberi2008). It has mostly come late to several new concepts evolving in plant protection: ecology and agroecology, IPM, habitat management, herbicide-resistant crops, and biodiversity in agroecosystems. This is due to weed science being a relatively young discipline, its low specific weight, and the fact that several other niches were already filled when this discipline emerged. So, due to these niches, it becomes difficult to create a separate job market for weed scientists. Also, many pesticide companies hire nontechnical staff to sell their products related to weed management. This is another big reason for fewer job being available.
Research and education-based jobs have been historically limited in weed science. Such job opportunities in weed science are scattered, and there is huge geographic inequality. For example, weed science graduates in the United States can find relevant jobs easily in academia, industry, and government sectors, while those outside North America have a really difficult time. As a matter of fact, in just the last 3 years, more than 20 faculty positions specifically in weed science were advertised across the United States (https://wssa.net/category/jobs), while that number was probably less than 5 outside the United States. In addition, weed scientists often have to compete with experts in allied fields which is not the case with relatively bigger crop protection fields/disciplines like entomology and plant pathology.
Herbicide-Resistance Challenges
Heavy reliance on synthetic herbicides, constant use of herbicides with a single mode of action, and herbicide applications at inaccurate doses have caused widespread evolution of herbicide resistance in weed populations across the world (Heap Reference Heap2023; Torra et al. Reference Torra, Osuna, Merotto and Vila-Aiub2021). Herbicide resistance has become the greatest concern of weed science in recent times, because it ultimately threatens profitable crop production and food security. It has increased the costs of crop production, especially in developed nations that largely depend on herbicides to grow highly productive herbicide-tolerant crops (Burke and Bell Reference Burke, Bell and Van Alfen2014). Weed species belonging to Amaranthus, Lolium, Conyza, and Echinochloa genera are the worst herbicide-resistant weeds, with proven capabilities of evolving resistance to a wide range of sites of action (Heap Reference Heap2014). Also, recent studies of multiple and cross-resistance to several herbicides have increased concern, as there are fewer herbicide options for certain weed species (Peterson et al. Reference Peterson, Collavo, Ovejero, Shivrain and Walsh2018). Effective management of herbicide-resistant weeds requires cutting-edge research, coordinated education, and continuous outreach efforts. Herbicide-resistant weeds also require new management strategies that are not solely reliant on herbicides.
Challenges to the Adoption of Modern Technologies
Modern digital technologies offer great opportunities for agronomic operations, including weed management (Bajwa et al. Reference Bajwa, Mahajan and Chauhan2015). However, one of the major challenges in using modern technologies such as robotics for weed management is identifying different weed species accurately (Slaughter et al. Reference Slaughter, Giles and Downey2008). Weeds can have different shapes, sizes, and colors, and detecting them can be challenging, especially in complex and dynamic environments like agricultural fields. Robotic systems need to be designed to work in a range of environments and conditions, including different crop types, soil types, and weather conditions. They must also be adaptable to different weed densities and distributions. Data management is another problem, as the amount of data generated by robotic systems can be overwhelming. The data must be stored, processed, and analyzed to provide meaningful information for decision making.
The development and implementation of robotic systems can be expensive. The high costs associated with the development of custom robotics platforms and sensors may be a barrier for some farmers and researchers. The use of robotics in agriculture may be subject to legal and regulatory barriers. For example, the use of drones for crop monitoring and pesticide application may be subject to strict regulations, including registration and certification requirements. This can be a complex task, and integrating robotics with legacy equipment can be particularly challenging.
Prospects for Weed Science
Although several leading universities offer education and training in weed science directly or through courses embedded in their crop science–related degrees, the overall number of educational providers within this important discipline is very small on a global scale, especially in underdeveloped countries. The study of basic and fundamental principles of weed science should be compulsory for agriculture students. Weed science students should seek knowledge of weed biology, ecology, and IWM, along with advanced technologies such as remote sensing, artificial intelligence, computing, and robotics. This will diversify students’ skills within weed science while potentially broadening job opportunities for them in agricultural engineering and industry.
Climate change is one of the world’s major challenges (and an opportunity as well), and it will become even more critical for agriculture and weed science in the near future given the increasing global population and food demand. Unfortunately, crop protection as well as weed invasions and weed management will become more difficult under future climatic conditions (Bajwa et al. Reference Bajwa, Farooq, Al-Sadi, Nawaz, Jabran and Siddique2020, Reference Bajwa, Matzrafi and Jugulam2021; Jabran et al. Reference Jabran, Florentine and Chauhan2020). Weed scientists have a key role to play in both mitigation of and adaptation to adverse effects of climate change through more adaptive research using complex climate change scenarios. This might be implemented by reducing tillage practices and avoiding flaming and encouraging conservation tillage practices, site-specific weed management, reduced herbicide rates, and biological and cultural control (Somasundaram et al. Reference Somasundaram, Sinha, Dalal, Lal, Mohanty, Naorem, Hati, Chaudhary, Biswas, Patra and Chaudhari2020). In addressing climate change, the disciplines of weed science and invasion ecology can learn a lot from each other, and there are certain principles and practices that can be exchanged and mutually applied to achieve sustainable outcomes (Sun et al. Reference Sun, Kaleibar, Oveisi and Müller-Schärer2021).
To be effective, weed management strategies must take into account weed ecology in connection to environmental, genetic, and biochemical factors, as well as and molecular biology information. The use of genetic techniques can help to identify and characterize genes that are involved in weed growth and development. This research can lead to the development of new herbicides that target specific genes in weeds, making them more susceptible to management options while reducing their negative impacts. Also, by using techniques such as gene editing and RNA interference, researchers can modify the genetic makeup of weeds to make them more susceptible to herbicides or even to cause them to self-destruct. The economics of both weed-induced production losses and weed control techniques must be taken into consideration when creating an adequate weed science curriculum.
Weed science is an integrative scientific discipline that combines both applied and basic sciences to understand and effectively manage some of the most undesirable plants in agroecosystems. The work of weed scientists is challenging, and several advances have been achieved, including achieving scale as a specific discipline. Still, numerous issues have yet to be fully explored, including the role of molecular biologists, invasion ecologists, and plant physiologists in basic and applied research for vegetation management in agricultural and nonagricultural ecosystems.
In the future, weed science as a discipline needs to be described in more precise and positive ways to attract potential students. Additionally, multidisciplinary weed science needs to be developed or introduced so that students can learn more about the complexity of weeds in farming systems and then go on to find innovative solutions. Topics such as molecular analysis of suspected herbicide-resistant weeds, weed management by genetic tools like RNAi, and weed identification by DNA bar-coding and sequencing need to be incorporated into coursework for weed science students. Also, there is a need for cooperation between government organizations and private industry for the creation of internship/placement programs for weed science graduate students.
Acknowledgments
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency or the commercial or not-for-profit sectors. The authors acknowledge the ongoing support from their respective institutes. No conflicts of interest have been declared.
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