Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-77f85d65b8-hzqq2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-04-16T09:18:10.004Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

7 - Uniformitarianism and the Social Ecology of Anguilla’s Homestead Period

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 December 2025

Salikoko S. Mufwene
Affiliation:
University of Chicago
Enoch O. Aboh
Affiliation:
University of Amsterdam
Get access

Summary

This chapter offers a close analysis of the Uniformitarian Principle and its use as a conceptual tool for understanding and narrating language contact and language change, paying special attention to the social life of Anguillian, the English-lexifier Creole language of Anguilla, the most northerly of the Caribbean’s Leeward Islands. The language and aspects of the situation of contact that led to its emergence are described from a novel uniformitarian perspective that integrates insights from general linguistics, Communication Accommodation Theory, and the analysis of early colonial-era archives.

Information

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

References

Abakah, Emanuel Nicholas. 2016. Hypotheses of the diachronic development of the Akan language group. Journal of Universal Language, 17(1): 151.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aboh, O. Enoch. 2009. Competition and selection: That’s all!. In Complex process in new languages, ed. by Aboh, Enoch O. & Smith, Norval, 317344. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aboh, O. Enoch. 2015. The emergence of hybrid grammars. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alleyne, Mervyn C. 1971. Acculturation and the cultural matrix of creolization. In Pidginization and creolization of languages, ed. by Hymes, Dell, 169186. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Alleyne, Mervyn C. 1980. Comparative Afro-American: An historical-comparative study of the English-based Afro-American dialects of the New World. Ann Arbor, MI: Karoma.Google Scholar
Alleyne, Mervyn C. 1986. Substratum influences: Guilty until proven innocent. In Substrata vs. universals in Creole genesis, ed. by Muysken, Pieter & Smith, Norval, 301315. Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alleyne, Mervyn C. 1990. Roots of Jamaican culture. London: Pluto Press.Google Scholar
Auer, Anita et al. 2015. Historical sociolinguistics: The field and its future. Journal of Historical Sociolinguistics, 1(1): 112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Auer, Peter & Hinskens, Frans. 2005. The role of interpersonal accommodation in a theory of language change. In Dialect change: Divergence and convergence in European languages, ed. by Auer, Peter, Hinskens, Frans, & Kerswill, Paul, 335357. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baker, Philip. 1999. Investigating the origin and diffusion of shared features among the Atlantic English Creoles. In St. Kitts and the Atlantic Creoles: The texts of Samuel Augustus Mathews in perspective, ed. by Baker, Philip & Bruyn, Adrienne, 315364. London: University of Westminister Press.Google Scholar
Banks, Linda. 2003. Anguilla Talk. Tranquility wrapped in blue. London: Hansib Publications.Google Scholar
Bergs, Alexander. 2012. The uniformitarian principle and the risk of anachronisms in language and social history. In The handbook of historical sociolinguistics, ed. by Hernández-Campoy, Juan Manuel, & Conde-Silvestre, Juan Camilo, 8098. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blome, Richard. 1672. A description of the island of Jamaica with the other isles and territories in America, to which the English are related. London.Google Scholar
Brubaker, Rogers & Cooper, Frederick. 2000. Beyond identity. Theory and Society, 29(1): 147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bybee, Joan. 2015. Language change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bynon, Theodora. 1993. Historical linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Carty, Brenda & Petty, Colville. 2000. Anguilla, tranquil isle of the Caribbean. London: Macmillan Education Limited.Google Scholar
Chaplin, Joyce E. 2002. Race. In The British Atlantic world, 1500–1800, ed. Armitage, David & Braddick, Michael J., 154172. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Chaudenson, Robert. 1992. Des îles, des hommes, des langues: essais sur la créolisation linguistique et culturelle. Paris: L’Harmattan.Google Scholar
Chaudenson, Robert. 2001. Creolization of language and culture (translated by Pargman, Sheri, Mufwene, Salikoko, Billings, Sabrina, & AuCoin, Michelle). New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Christian, Ijahnya. 2002. Dictionary of Anguillian language. The Valley, Anguilla: Anguilla National Trust.Google Scholar
Christy, Craig. 1983. Uniformitarianism in linguistics. Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Corrigan, Karen P. 2010. Irish English, Vol. 1. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar
Davies, John. 1666. History of the Caribby Islands. London: J. M. for T. Dring & J. Starkey.Google Scholar
DeGraff, Michel. 1999. Creolization, language change, and language acquisition: An epilogue. In Language creation and language change, ed. by DeGraff, Michel, 473543. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
DeGraff, Michel. 2001. On the origin of creoles: A Cartesian critique of Neo-Darwinian linguistics. Linguistic Typology, 5(2/3): 213310.Google Scholar
DeGraff, Michel. 2005. Creole exceptionalism and accidents of history: A conversation with Michel DeGraff (interview by Don E. Walicek). Sargasso, Creolistics and Caribbean Languages, 2004–05, I: 134.Google Scholar
DeGraff, Michel. 2005. Linguists’ most dangerous myth: The fallacy of Creole exceptionalism. Language in Society, 34: 533591.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeGraff, Michel. 2005. Morphology and word order in “creolization” and beyond. In Oxford handbook of comparative syntax, ed. by Cinque, Guglielmo & Kayne, Richard S., 293372. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
DeGraff, Michel. 2009. Creole exceptionalism and the (mis)education of the Creole speaker: Educating for language awareness. In The languages of Africa and the diaspora, ed. by Kleifgan, Jo Anne & Bond, George C., 124144. Buffalo, NY: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Devonish, Hubert. 2008. Language planning in Pidgins and Creoles. In The handbook of Pidgin and Creole studies, ed. by Kouwenberg, Silvia and Singler, John V., 615635. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunn, Richard S. 1972. Sugar and slaves: The rise of the planter class in the English West Indies, 1624–1713. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Dyde, Brian. 2005. Out of the crowded vagueness: A history of the islands of St. Kitts, Nevis, and Anguilla. Oxford: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Errington, Joseph. 2007. Making contact between consequences. In Consequences of contact: Language ideologies and sociocultural transformations in Pacific societies, ed. by Makihara, Miki & Schieffelin, Bambi, 216226. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fleming, H. L. 1826. Letters from members of the Christian faith society in St. Christopher and Anguilla. Basseterre, St. Kitts.Google Scholar
Gallois, Cindy, Ogay, Tania, & Giles, Howard. 2006. Communication accommodation theory: A look back and a look ahead. In Theorizing about communication and culture, ed. by Gudykunst, W. B., 121148. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Games, Alison. 2002. Migration. In The British Atlantic world, 1500–1800, ed. by Armitage, David & Braddick, Michael J., 3150. London: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Gasiorek, Jessica. 2016. The “dark side” of CAT. In Communication accommodation theory: Negotiating personal relationships and social identities across contexts, ed. by Giles, Howard, 85104. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Giles, Howard. 1973. Accent mobility: A model and some data. Anthropological Linguistics, 15: 87105.Google Scholar
Goddard, Cliff & Ye, Zhengdao. 2015. Ethnopragmatics. In The Routledge handbook of Language and culture, ed. by Sharifian, Farzad, 6683. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Godwyn, Morgan. 1680. The Negro’s & Indian’s advocate. London.Google Scholar
Gould, Stephen J. 1993. Eight little piggies: Reflections in natural history. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Goveia, Elsa. 1970. The West Indian slave laws of the eighteenth century. Barbados: Caribbean Universities Press.Google Scholar
Hickey, Raymond. 2011. The languages of Ireland: An integrated view. In Researching the languages of Ireland, ed. by Hickey, Raymond, 145. Uppsala: Uppsala University Press.Google Scholar
Hair, P. E. & Law, Robin. 1998. The English in West Africa to 1700. The origins of empire: British overseas enterprise to the close of the seventeenth century, ed. by Canny, N., 241263. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hall, Gwendolyn Midlo. 2005. Slavery and African ethnicities in the Americas. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Higman, Barry. 1995. Slave populations of the British Caribbean, 1807–1834. Mona, Jamaica: University of the West Indies Press.Google Scholar
Hodge, S. Wilfred. 2003. Bethel – the road – and due west. In Born in slavery: A story of Methodism in Anguilla and its influences in the Caribbean, ed. by Foker, Wilbert, 2029. Edinburgh: Dunedin Academic Press.Google Scholar
Hong, Ying-yi et al. 2003. How are social identities linked to self-conception and intergroup orientation? The moderating effect of implicit theories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(6): 11471160.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, S. B. 1976. Annals of Anguilla. Belfast: Christian Journals Limited.Google Scholar
Joseph, Brian D. & Janda, Richard D.. 2003. On language, change, and language change: Or, of history, linguistics, and historical linguistics. In The handbook of historical linguistics, ed. by Joseph, Brian D. and Janda, Richard D., 3180. Hoboken, NJ: Blackwell Publishing.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keller, Rudi. 1994. On language change: The invisible hand in language. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Kulick, Don. 1992. Language shift and cultural reproduction: Socialization, self, and syncretism in a Papua New Guinean village. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Labov, William. 1972. Sociolinguistic patterns. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Labov, William. 1994. Principles of linguistic change: Internal factors, Vol. 1. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Labov, William. 2001. Principles of linguistic change: Social factors, Vol. 1. Malden, MA: Blackwell.Google Scholar
LePage, Robert & Tabouret Keller, Andrée. 1985. Acts of identity: Creole-based approaches to language and ethnicity. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
McWhorter, John. 2018. The creole debate. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mertz, Elizabeth. 1989. Sociolinguistic creativity: Cape Breton Gaelic’s linguistic “tip.” In Reflexive obsolescence: Studies in language contraction and death, ed. by Dorian, Nancy, 103116. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meyerhoff, Miriam. 2008. Forging pacific pidgin and creole syntax. In The handbook of pidgin and creole studies, ed. by Kouwenberg, Silvia & Singler, John Victor, 4873. Malden, MA: Blackwell.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Michael, Lev. 2015. Social dimensions of language change. The Routledge handbook of historical linguistics, ed. by Bowern, Claire and Evans, Bethwyn. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Milroy, James. 1993. On the social origins of language change. Historical linguistics: Problems and perspectives, ed. by Jones, Charles, 215236. Oxford: Routledge.Google Scholar
Milroy, Lesley & Gordon, Matthew. 2008. Sociolinguistics: Method and interpretation (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell.Google Scholar
Mitchell, Don. 1989. Anguilla: From the Archives: 1650–1776. Unpublished manuscript. Anguilla Heritage Room, Anguilla Library Services.Google Scholar
Mufwene, Salikoko S. 2001. The ecology of language evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mufwene, Salikoko S. 2014. The case was never closed; McWhorter misinterprets the ecological approach to the emergence of Creoles. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages, 29(1): 157171.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muysken, Pieter. 2008. Creole studies and multilingualism. In The handbook of pidgin and creole studies, ed. by Kouwenberg, Silvia & Singler, John Victor, 287308. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muysken, Pieter. 2020. Personal communication via email June 28–29, 2020.Google Scholar
Nevalainen, Terttu. 2015. What are historical sociolinguistics? Journal of Historical Sociolinguistics, 1(2): 243269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nichols, Johanna. 1990. Linguistic diversity and the first settlement of the New World. Language, 66: 475521.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pardo, Jennifer. 2006. On phonetic convergence during conversational interaction. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 119(4): 23822393.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Petty, Colville L. 1991. A handbook history of Anguilla. Anguilla: The Valley.Google Scholar
Raumolin-Brunberg, Helena & Nevalainen, Terttu. 1997. Like father (un)like son: A sociolinguistic approach to the letters of the Cely family. In Studies in Middle English linguistics, ed. by Fisiak, Jacek, 489511. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rickford, John R. 2011. LePage’s theoretical and applied legacy in sociolinguistics and creole studies. In Variation in the Caribbean: From creole continua to individual agency, ed. by Hinrichs, Lars & Farquharson, Joseph T., 251272. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rickford, John R. & Handler, Jerome S.. 1994. Textual evidence on the nature of early Barbadian speech, 1676–1835. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages, 9(2): 221225.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roberts, Ian G. 2017. Uniformitarianism. In The handbook of historical syntax, ed. by Ledgeway, Adam & Roberts, Ian G., 338359. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roberts, Peter A. 1997. From oral to literate culture: Colonial experience in the English West Indies. Kingston, Jamaica: University Press of the West Indies.Google Scholar
Roberts, Peter A. 2008. The roots of Caribbean identity: Language, race, and ecology. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Romaine, Suzanne. 1982. Sociohistorical linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Singler, John Victor. 1993. African influence upon Afro-American language varieties: A consideration of sociohistorical factors. In Africanisms in Afro-American language varieties, ed. by Mufwene, Salikoko (with the assistance of Nancy Condon), 235253. Athens: University of Georgia Press.Google Scholar
Singler, John Victor. 2008. The sociohistorical context of creole genesis. In The handbook of pidgin and creole studies, ed. by Kouwenberg, Silvia & Singler, John Victor, 332358. Malden, MA: Blackwell.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Southey, Thomas. 1827. Chronological history of the West Indies. London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green.Google Scholar
Suckling, George. 1870. A historical account of the Virgin Islands in the West Indies. London: Benjamin White.Google Scholar
Tajfel, Henri & Turner, John C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In Psychology of intergroup relations, ed. by Worchel, S. & Austin, W. G., 724. Chicago: Nelson-Hall.Google Scholar
Templeton, A. R. 1980. The theory of speciation via the founder principle. Genetics, 94: 10111038.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Todd, Loreto. 1974. Pidgins and creoles. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Traugott, Elizabeth c. 2017. “Insubordination” in the light of the uniformitarian principle. English Language and Linguistics, 21: 289310.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trouillot, Michel-Rolph. 2003. Global transformations: Anthropology and the modern world. London: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trudgill, Peter. 2004. Dialect contact and new-dialect formation: The inevitability of colonial Englishes. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar
Trudgill, Peter. 2008. Colonial dialect contact in the history of European languages: On the irrelevance of identity in new dialect formation. Language in Society, 37: 241280.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trudgill, Peter. 2020. Sociolinguistic typology and the uniformitarian hypothesis. In Language dispersal, diversification, and contact, ed. by Muysken, P. & Crevels, E. I., 4457. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vokins, Joan. 1871. God’s mighty power magnified […]. (2nd ed.) Cockermouth: D. Fidler.Google Scholar
Walicek, Don E. 2009. The founder principle and Anguilla’s homestead society. In Gradual creolization: Studies celebrating Jacques Arends, ed. by van den Berg, Margot, Cardoso, Hugo, & Selbach, Rachel, 349372. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walicek, Don E. 2011. Christianity, literacy, and creolization in nineteenth-century Anguilla. In Anansi’s defiant webs, contact, continuity, convergence, and complexity in the language, literatures and cultures of the Greater Caribbean, ed. by Severing, Ronald et al., 181189. Willemstad, Curaçao: University of Curaçao and Fundashon pa Planifikashon di Idioma.Google Scholar
Walicek, Don E. 2012. Migration from Anguilla to 18th-century Puerto Rico: A socio-linguistic approach to African identities in Caribbean contexts. Cuadernos de Investigación Histórica, 7: 5168.Google Scholar
Walicek, Don E. 2019. Language policy and public pedagogy in Anguilla. Anguilla Country Conference 2019, University of the West Indies Open Campus; October 23–25, 2019.Google Scholar
Walkden, George. 2019. The many faces of uniformitarianism in linguistics. Glossa: A Journal of General Linguistics, 4: 52. Online at www.glossajournal.org/articles/10.5334/gjgl.888/.Google Scholar
Warner-Lewis, Maureen. 2003. Central Africa in the Caribbean: Transcending time, transforming cultures. Mona: University of the West Indies Press.Google Scholar
Wells, Robert V. 1975. The population of the British colonies in America before 1776: A survey of census data. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Whitney, Dwight. 1867. The study of language: Twelve lectures on the principles of linguistic science. London: N. Trübner and Co.Google Scholar
Williams, Jeffrey P. 2003. The establishment and perpetuation of white enclave communities in the Eastern Caribbean: The case of Island Harbour. In Contact Englishes of the Eastern Caribbean, ed. by Aceto, Michael & Williams, Jeffrey, 95119. Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Winford, Donald. 2001. “Intermediate” creoles and degrees of change in creole formation. In Degrees of restructuring in creole languages, ed. by Neumann, Ingrid & Schneider, Edgar W., 215246. Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Winters, Margaret E. 2010. Introduction: On the emergence of diachronic cognitive linguistics. In Historical cognitive linguistics, ed. by Winters, Margaret E., Tissari, Heli, & Allan, Kathryn, 327. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zacek, Natalie A. 2010. Settler society in the English Leeward Islands, 1670–1776. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Partial List of Archival Materials Consulted

British Parliamentary Papers: House of Commons.

Don Mitchell Collection, Anguilla Heritage Room, Anguilla Library Service.

English Board of Trade. Report of the Lords of the committee of council appointed for the consideration of all matters relating to trade and foreign plantations … concerning the present state of the trade to Africa, and particularly the trade in slaves [London], 1789.

The Invoice Book Homeward of the Royal African Company of England, Nov. 2, 1696 to Nov. 22, 1699.

St. Kitts National Archive, Anguilla ledgers.

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×