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Index

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 July 2023

Edited by
Jennifer Cabrelli ,
Adel Chaouch-Orozco ,
Jorge González Alonso ,
Sergio Miguel Pereira Soares ,
Eloi Puig-Mayenco  and
Jason Rothman
Jennifer Cabrelli
Affiliation:
University of Illinois, Chicago
Adel Chaouch-Orozco
Affiliation:
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Jorge González Alonso
Affiliation:
Universidad Nebrija, Spain and UiT, Arctic University of Norway
Sergio Miguel Pereira Soares
Affiliation:
Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics
Eloi Puig-Mayenco
Affiliation:
King's College London
Jason Rothman
Affiliation:
UiT, Arctic University of Norway and Universidad Nebrija, Spain

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Information

Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Third Language Acquisition , pp. 771 - 792
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2023

Index

4-M model of morpheme classification, 412
Abutalebi, J., 223, 442, 456, 498, 507, 526, 534, 563, 581, 585, 586, 587, 589, 590, 594, 606, 608, 609, 611
ABX discrimination tasks, 122
accent, 323, 367, 369, 370, 451, 499
acceptability judgment task (AJT), 29, 234
accommodation, 48
activation. see also co-activation
cognitive control, 526
cumulative effects, 231
functional neural changes relating to language control, 588–590
language acquisition research, 222
language modes, 51
neuroscience, 496
property-by-property transfer, 224
simultaneous, 520
usage-based approaches, 57
Activation Theory, 48
Activation Threshold Hypothesis, 335
active bilinguals versus foreign language users, 466
Adaptive Control Hypothesis (ACH), 223, 442, 456, 608, 609, 611
Adesope, O. O., 78
adolescents, 120, 503, see also young adults
adult learners
critical period hypothesis, 499
diversity of language environment, 503
instructed L3 acquisition, 473
neuroplasticity, 500
transfer, 470
advanced learners
attrition, 322, 328
full transfer, 206
morphosyntactic transfer, 200, 225–226
vocabulary acquisition, 147, 151
age of acquisition
attrition, 326, 327, 328, 329
cognitive control, 541
cognitive reserve, 556
corpus research, 687
developmental perspectives, 502
heritage speakers, 364
language processing, 592–593
methodological issues, 338
multilingual processing research, 670
neural adaptations, 583, 585, 586
neuroplasticity, 524, 533, 581
Ahn, H.-D., 333, 334
Alcock, A., 81
Alcón-Soler, E., 253, 254, 255, 259, 261
Alcorn, S., 324
Algeria, 448–456
Al-Hoorie, A., 68
Alladi, S., 555, 558, 620, 623
Allopenna, P. D., 174
Altarriba, J., 443
Alzheimer’s disease (AD), 555, 556, 557, 558, 559, 560, 561, 562, 563, 564, 566, 620, 643
Amengual, M., 173
analogy, 43, 49, 57
Anderson, J. A. E., 563, 621
Andrews, E., 595
Angelovska, T., 226, 470, 473, 474, 475, 477, 478, 479, 481, 669
annotated data, 687, 689
Ansaldo, A. I., 565, 615
anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), 524, 533, 541, 562, 563, 580, 581, 589, 592, 614
Antoniou, K., 250, 251, 252, 260
Aparicio, X., 184, 667
aphasia, 185, 556, 566, 634, 639, 641–643, 644–646, 647, 648, 649, 650, 651
Applied Linguistics, 65–68
aptitude, 79, 82
Arabic
code-switching, 448, 449, 450, 451, 452, 453
constraint-based switching studies, 408, 418
instructed L3 acquisition, 477
novel word learning study, 495
transfer studies, 118, 256
Archibald, J., 366
architecture of lexicon, 664
Arnaus Gil, L., 284
Aronin, L., 70, 72, 75, 701, 718
article realization, 357
artificial grammars, 725
artificial languages, 154, 181, 330, 497, 499, 669, 724–738
artificial learning, 78
Aruba, 519
Asian Corpus of English (ACE), 301
assessment, 637, 639
assessing multilingualism, 542
language impairment, 649–650
language policies, 101
multicompetence, 84
assimilation, 48, 173, 623
associative learning, 49
Attention Network Test (ANT), 523, 528
attentional control, 521, 540, 612
attentional resources, neurophysiological measures of, 670, 675
attraction effects, 222
attrition, 317–341
complex and dynamic systems, 79, 81–83
lexical attrition, 182
models, 335–337
neural plasticity, 500
returnees, 380, 381, 384, 387, 391, 393, 394
sociolinguistics, 80
Austin, J. L., 97, 245
Austria, 457
authentic data, 100, 282, 683, 688, 691
Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD), 634, 636, 638, 650, 651
autobiographies, 698, 711, 712–714
automatic inhibition, 608
automaticity, 538, 589, 595, 615
avoidance, 330
AX perceptual paradigms, 122
AX-Continuous Performance Test (AX-CPT), 440, 507, 528
axial diffusivity (AD), 563, 580
backflagging, 413
background languages, 53, 146–156, see also crosslinguistic influence (CLI), transfer
Backus, A., 415, 701, 711
Baetens-Beadsmore, H., 302, 305
Bak, T. H., 619
Balam, O., 405, 415
Balas, A., 118
Balcom, P., 477
Ballier, N., 685
Bangor Miami Corpus, 411, 437, 442
BangorTalk, 414, 417
Bantu languages, 422
Bardel, C., 31, 32, 55, 125, 149, 152, 197, 207, 220, 354, 391, 469, 470, 663, 670, 673, 705, 706, 709
Bardovi-Harlig, K., 394
Barron Hauwaert, S., 287
Bartolotti, J., 154, 175
basal ganglia, 526, 563, 587
Basque country/Basque language, 148, 304, 306, 355, 361, 468
Batterink, L., 725
Bayesian concepts, 48, 58, 745–754
Beatty-Martínez, A. L., 405, 506, 507
Becker, M., 539, 584, 585, 591, 595
beginner learners, 208, 209, 231, 322, 470
behavioral indices of new learning, 494–502
behavioral studies, 201, 245, 261, 320
Belazi, H. M., 408, 418
Belcher, D., 714
Ben Abbes, K., 235
Ben Zion, D., 497
Benati, A., 477
Benrabah, M., 118
Berardo, A., 71
Berber (Tamazight), 448
Berkes, É., 198, 393, 470
Berkes, M., 555, 559
Berroir, P., 615
Berthele, R., 184
Best, C. T., 124
Bhatt, R., 104, 414
Bialystok, E., 78, 521, 555, 558, 559, 580, 620, 622
Bice, K., 500, 501, 503
bi-dialectal speakers, 251, 290, 373
Biedron, A., 610
BiLex, 646
bilingual advantage
aging, 619
artificial languages, 730–732
code-switching, 454
cognitive advantages, 467, 468, 493
cognitive control, 519–544
heritage speakers, 371
immigration, 622
inhibitory control, 608
language impairment, 635
metalinguistic awareness, 78
migration contexts, 355
neuroprotection of bilingualism, 504
neuroscience, 496
psycholinguistics, 368
Bilingual Anterior-to-Posterior and Subcortical Shift (BAPSS), 583, 589, 590, 614–616, 624
Bilingual Aphasia Test (BAT), 649, 650
bilingual control groups, 121, 338
Bilingual Dual-path model, 418
Bilingual Education Act (US, 1968), 296
Bilingual English-Spanish Assessment (BESA), 649
Bilingual Interactive Activation Model (BIA), 169–170, 672
bilingual language control, 438, 440, 454
Bilingual Language Profile (BLP), 363, 474
biliteracy, 300, 497
Biloushchenko, I. B., 172
Birdsong, D., 363, 474
Blanco-Elorrieta, E., 440
Blank, C., 118
Bley-Vroman, R., 50
Bloch, C., 529, 592
Blommaert, J., 99, 701, 711
Bod, R., 50
Bogulski, C. A., 495, 496, 497
Bolonyai, A., 414
Bonnet, A., 295
Booth, P., 142
Borer–Chomsky Conjecture, 224
borrowing, 415, 416, 417, 424, 452
Bouffard, P., 477
Boumans, L., 449
Bourdieu, P., 100, 105, 297
Bouvy, C., 150
brain atrophy studies, 564
brain imaging. see neuroimaging
brain indices of new learning, 494–502, 505
brain maintenance (BM), 562–564, 569, 617–624
brain plasticity. see neuroplasticity
brain reserve (BR), 562–564, 569
Brazilian Portuguese, 29, 34, 36, 198–199, 202, 203, 330, 331, 358, 674, 755
Briellmann, R.S., 593, 616
brms package, 754, 759
Broca’s area, 533, 592
Brocanto, 499
Brocanto 2, 725, 731, 737
Brones, I., 665
Brown, M., 327
Brysbaert, M., 183
Budría, S., 73
Bulgarian, 644, 707
Burton, G., 77
Busch, B., 715
butterfly effect, 67, 71
Bybee, J., 43, 47
Byers-Heinlein, K., 542
Cabeza, R., 564, 565, 569, 613, 614, 617, 623
Cabrelli Amaro, J., 117, 225, 226, 327, 328, 331, 338, 339, 340, 663, 673, 709, 744
Cabrelli, J., 36, 37, 324, 364, 365
Canada, 71, 107, 296, 305, 386, 442
Cancila, J., 324
Cantonese, 27, 172, 174, 333, 334, 445, 637
Caramazza, A., 665
caregiver discourse style, 288
Carlson, M. T., 324
case studies, 116, 126, 340, 696–718
case–control study, 637
Cassany, D., 309
Catalan, 36, 107, 177, 196, 204–207, 253, 257, 259, 278, 285, 303, 304, 333, 359, 363, 440, 457, 471
pragmatic studies, 257
Catalonia, 107, 303, 304, 307, 468
category boundaries (phonology), 117
Caubet, D., 449
caudate nucleus, 533, 538, 581, 583, 584, 585, 589, 590, 614, 616
Celata, C., 323, 324, 339
Cenoz, J., 25, 142, 155, 257, 295, 299, 355, 466, 475, 521, 698, 713, 718
cerebellum, 587, 589
Chamorro, G., 320, 331
Chan, B. H. S., 412, 414
Chan, C. Y., 27
Chang, C., 130, 321, 322, 323, 327
Chertkow, H., 559, 620, 623
Cheuk, W., 637, 638, 647, 650
Chevalier, S., 288
children. see also early childhood
bilingual upbringing, 467–468
brain plasticity, 524
cognitive control, 522
early bilingual L3ers, 354, 357
early language learning education, 301, 304
internationally adopted children, 389
language impairment, 636–639, 640, 644, 647
phonology, 120
pragmatics, 251, 257
returnees, 385–388
three first languages, 271–290
Chinese, 84, 107, 176, 181, 333, 440, 495, 503, 685, 731, see also Hokkien, Cantonese, Mandarin
Chmiel, A., 172, 666
Choi, J., 289
Chomsky, N., 26, 404, 407, 408
chunking, 43, 47
cingulate cortex, 565, see also anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)
Clare, L., 561
Clark, E., 282
Clenton, J., 142
Cline, T., 287, 638
clitic climbing, 202
Clyne, M., 75, 80, 273, 421, 444
co-activation. see also crosslinguistic influence (CLI)
asymmetrical patterns of, 178–185
attrition, 317, 318, 319
code-switching, 410, 450, 452
cognates, 172, 173
cognitive aging, 606
cognitive processes, 125, 521
false friends, 174
multilingual processing research, 665
property-by-property transfer, 224, 231
psycholinguistics, 438
translations, 175–177
Cockcroft, K., 610
code-blending, 438
code-mixing, 260, 277–279
code-switching
cognitive aging, 611
cognitive control, 609
critical sociolinguistics, 99
early childhood trilingualism, 289
inhibition, 609
intraclausal versus interclausal, 403
lexical gaps, 151
metapragmatic awareness, 254
psycholinguistics, 437–457
returnees, 386, 387
switch costs, 167, 439–441, 442–448, 453–454, 611
theoretical linguistic approaches, 403–425
trilinguals compared to bilinguals, 273
vocabulary acquisition, 147
Coetzee-Van Rooy, S., 81, 85
cognate advantage, 154
cognate guessing studies, 184
cognate knowledge tasks, 153
cognates
attrition, 319, 332
case study methods, 710
code-switching, 444, 452, 453, 454
crosslinguistic structural similarities, 332
early childhood trilingualism, 282
etymology, 153
false friends, 146, 147
language impairment, 644, 648
multilingual processing research, 665, 666
processing, 171–173
Revised Hierarchical Model (RHM), 184
cognitive aging, 606–625
cognitive control, 330, 519–544, 607, 608, see also executive functioning (EF)
cognitive dependency grammar, 410
cognitive economy, 125, 223
cognitive impairment, 555, 559, 561, see also mild cognitive impairment (MCI)
cognitive linguistics, 415, 450
cognitive maintenance, 562–564, 569, 617–624
cognitive processes. see also conflict monitoring, inhibition
activation and inhibition, 222
artificial languages, 732
bilingual advantage, 493
bilingual upbringing, 467
code-switching, 438, 454–456
cognitive consequences of bilingualism and trilingualism, 244, 520–523
compensation (cognitive/neural), 564–566, 569, 613–617
computational models, 671
corpus research, 687
early differences in language processing, 494
multilingualism enhances, 244
neuroprotections for older adults, 504
cognitive reserve, 555–570, 617–624
cognitive resources, 497, see also memory
cognitive theories
attrition, 317–341
bilingual advantage, 119
complex and dynamic systems, 75
critical sociolinguistics, 108
declarative memory, 31
usage-based approaches, 43
Cohen, A. D., 386
cohort studies, 561
Colombo, J., 735
Colomé, A., 177
colonialism, 103, 295, 457
color-shape switching task, 591
commodity, language as, 105
Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR), 101, 298, 307
common space hypothesis, 51
communities of practice, 309
compensation (cognitive/neural), 564–566, 569, 613–617
competence. see also proficiency
critical sociolinguistics, 98
education, 300, 308
emergence, 48
language policies, 101
Multi-Phon project, 131
multi-competence, 300
multilingual education, 304
multilingual repertoires, 701
native-like, 101
plurilingual competence, 308
pragmatic competence, 248, 250
proxy for symbolic capital, 102
Competition Model, 336
Complement Adjunct Distinction, 418
Complex Dynamic Systems Theory (CDST), 64–85, 127, 336, 337
Complexity Theory, 713
computational models, 418, 691, 747, 750
computational sentence-processing models, 671
computed tomography (CT), 564
concept mediation hypothesis, 182
conflict monitoring, 320, 455, 457, 526, 527, 543, 584, 589, 617
congruent lexicalization, 413
connectionist models, 47, 335
Conner, P. S., 646, 648
Connor, U., 714
consolidation time, 670
constraint-based approaches
code-switching, 407, 414, 441, 445, 452
cognates, 666
constructionism, 415
constructions
analogy, 50
usage-based approaches, 46, 48, 56
content and language integrated learning (CLIL), 298, 306
content words, 152
context
case study methods, 701
code-switching, 415, 442, 448, 450
cognitive control, 541, 609
complex and dynamic systems, 80
corpus research, 687
critical sociolinguistics, 97, 106
diversity and variation, 505–508
early childhood trilingualism, 274
English as a third language, 104
neural changes, 493
Continua of Multilingual Education, 299
continuum models, 543
contrastive analysis (CA), 221, 472, 474, 477, 478
control groups, 121, 338, 736
Control Process Model, 454
conversational implicature, 246, 249–253
conversion, 76
copycat program, 50
corpus callosum (CC), 524, 538, 581
Corpus de Aprendices Taiwaneses de Español (CATE), 685
corpus linguistics, 683, 684, 692
Corpus Tartuense de Español Estudiantil Académico (ELEACTAR), 686
corpus-based studies, 683–693
code-switching, 414, 416, 417, 424, 444, 446
lack of open multilingual corpora, 419
transfer, 116
correction tasks, 662
cortical thickness, 538, 563, 568
COST Action IS 0804, 649
Costa, A., 176
Costumero, V., 568, 618
COWAT, 594
Cox, J. G., 621, 731
Craik, F. I., 558, 559, 620, 622
Crane, P. K., 560
Creative Construction, 221
critical period for stability, 326
critical period hypothesis (CPH), 26, 30, 50, 499
critical sociolinguistics, 96–108
cross-language effects (CLE), 221, 222
crosslinguistic influence (CLI). see also transfer
artificial languages, 726–729
attrition, 329
bidirectionality in childhood, 362
case study methods, 700, 703–708, 710
code-switching, 453–454
cognitive aging, 608
cognitive processes, 520, 527
compared to “transfer,” 221
compensation mechanisms, 613, 616
Complexity Dynamic Systems Theory (CDST), 76
Cumulative Input Threshold Hypothesis (CITH), 38
facilitative effects of L3 on L2, 332–334
heritage speakers, 371
intercomprehension, 710
language impairment, 639, 644, 645, 648
Linguistic Proximity Model (LPM), 35
mental lexicon, 165–186
morphosyntax, 195–210, 283, 285
multidirectional, 260, 362
multilingual processing research, 668–673
phonology, 118, 126, 130, 281
pragmatics, 255–257, 260, 262
priming asymmetry, 667
property-by-property transfer, 219–237
rCLI (regressive crosslinguistic influence), 328
research methodologies, 662
returnees, 388, 391–394
usage-based approaches, 53, 54–58
vocabulary acquisition, 146–156
crosslinguistic interaction (CLIN), 76–77
crosslinguistic research design, 122, 128
cross-modal association, 43
cross-sectional studies, 116, 284, 330, 561, 566, 568
cued language switching paradigms, 438–441, 612
cultural capital, 105
cultural practice, language as, 97
Cummins, J., 75, 84, 300, 307, 533
Cumulative Enhancement Model (CEM)
case study methods, 709
confounding factors, 673, 674
full transfer, 198
generative approaches, 32, 35
heritage speakers, 355
instructed settings, 470, 472
language processing methodologies, 670
phonology, 125
property-by-property transfer, 220, 225
returnees, 393
statistical modeling, 756, 757, 763, 766
usage-based approaches, 55, 57
Cumulative Input Threshold Hypothesis (CITH), 37, 364
Dahl, A., 234
Dalrymple-Alford, E. C., 168
Dalton-Puffer, C., 467
Danish, 72, 118, 154, 327
data analysis, 340–341, 758–763
data elicitation, 662
data elicitation techniques, 201, 207
data-driven approaches, 414–415
Davis, S.W., 614
De Angelis, G., 77, 84, 148, 152, 661, 700
de Bot, K., 166, 170, 325, 704
de Bruin, A., 588
De Costa, P., 105
De Groot, A. M. B., 183
De Houwer, A., 287
De Korne, H., 300, 306
De Leeuw, E., 319, 324
De Lima Silva, W., 423, 424
De Palma, R., 103
De Vogelaer, G., 107
declarative memory, 31, 57, 152, 391, 469, 735
Declarative/Procedural (DP) model, 31, 57, 152, 354, 391, 469, 705, 735
Declerck, M., 443
deep learning, 672
default, multilingualism as, 52
definiteness effect, 206
Degani, T., 495, 496, 497
delayed mimicry paradigm, 131
delayed repetition tasks, 121
Della Rosa, P.A., 528
DeLuca, V., 543, 556
dementia, 558, 559, 560, 561, 566, 620, 622, 623, 640, 643, 650, see also Alzheimer’s disease (AD)
Dennis, N. A., 614
dense data, 120, 128
Desano, 423
DESI study, 473
determiner-noun constructions, 417, 728
Deuchar, M., 417, 437
Developmental Language Disorder (DLD), 635, 637, 640, 644, 647, 648, 651
developmental perspectives on diversity and variation, 502–505
developmental research, 36, 208, 340, 363, 493, 542
Devlin, M., 283
Dewaele, J.-M., 287
dialectal variation, 372
diary notes, 714
Differential Access Hypothesis, 412
Differential Object Marking (DOM), 36, 201, 359, 674
Differential Stability Hypothesis (DSH), 328
diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), 524, 563, 580
digital media, 308
diglossia, 449
Dijkstra, T., 169, 172, 666, 667, 672
Direct Object Marking (DOM), 360, 371
direct translation distractors, 180
Di Sciullo, A.-M., 407, 408
discourse communities, 414
discourse markers, 413
discourse particles, 422
Distributed Morphology, 409, 421
diversity, 492–508
D-KEFS battery, 559
Dmitrieva, O., 324
Dolas, F., 79
Domene Moreno, C., 366
dominant language. see language dominance
Dominant Language Constellation (DLC), 701
Domínguez, L., 320, 321
Dörnyei, Z., 68, 79, 80, 81
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), 581, 593
Douglas Fir Group, 68
dual-task paradigms, 539, 591
Duff, P. A., 696
Duncan, H. D., 563
Dussias, P. E., 447
Dutch
age of acquisition studies, 592
Aruba, 519
attrition studies, 182
bilingualism as norm for Dutch speakers, 501
code-switching studies, 417, 422
cognates, 172
cognitive control studies, 529, 533
colonialism, 295
early childhood studies, 287
lexical studies, 172, 181, 184
Matrix Language Frame studies, 420
medium of instruction, 495
neuroscience studies, 616
Revised Hierarchical Model studies, 183
transfer studies, 179, 234
translation distractor studies, 175, 176, 180
Duyck, W., 183
DyME (Dynamics of Multilingualism with English), 65, 82, 84
dynamic language pedagogies, 300
Dynamic Model of Multilingualism (DMM), 65, 67, 69, 72, 73, 78, 336
Dynamic Restructuring Model (DRM), 75, 498, 505, 582, 587
Dynamic Systems Approaches, 96
dyslexia, 635, 638
Dziubalska-Kołaczyk, K., 128, 129
early childhood, 271–290, 493, 502
early exposure, 364, 468, 476, 482, 493, 502, see also age of acquisition
early language learning education (ELLe), 301
Ecke, P., 148, 150, 151, 153, 155, 156, 222, 329, 337, 707
ecological validity, 129, 166, 661, 670, 733–736
ecological views of learning, 47, 68
Edele, A., 473
education, 295–309
cognitive reserve/maintenance, 623
third language acquisition in the classroom, 466–483
visualizing the multilingual subject, 714
Efeoglu, G. H., 707
Einfeldt, M., 276, 281
ELEACTAR (Corpus Tartuense de Español Estudiantil Académico), 686
electroencephalography (EEG)
acquisition and processing studies, 664
code-switching studies, 440, 442, 443, 446, 447
cognate studies, 171
compensation studies, 616
instructed settings studies, 471, 528
multilingual processing research, 670, 675
phonology studies, 122
simultaneous interpreters, 539
transfer studies, 471
electrophysiological tools, 122, 418, 498, 526, 733
ELFA, 301
Elicited Imitation Task, 733
elicited production tasks, 662
Ellajosyula, R., 555, 643
ELLiE (Early Language Learning in Europe), 304
Ellis, N., 67
Elmer, S., 539, 584, 585
Elwert, W. T., 712
embodiment, 45
emergence, 48, 67, 79
emic perspectives, 713, 714
Emmorey, K., 438
Enever, J., 301
English
Aruba, 519
attrition studies, 182
case study methods, 706
code-switching studies, 277, 422, 440, 441
cognitive control studies, 523
cognitive reserve studies, 360
colonialism, 295
early childhood studies, 274, 283, 285, 287, 288, 289
education, 296, 297, 298, 301
generative studies, 29, 31, 34, 35, 36
heritage speaker studies, 365, 366, 367
instructed L3 acquisition, 473, 474, 477, 478
Japan, 383
language dominance studies, 364, 367
language of assessment, 639
lexical processing studies, 156, 172, 174, 175, 179, 180, 181, 183, 184
medium of instruction, 496
multilingual advantage, 494
multilingual education, 81, 84, 496
multilingual research, 72
phonological studies, 117, 118, 122, 127, 130, 132, 280, 330
pragmatic studies, 248, 254, 256, 257
proficiency and structural changes in brain, 594
returnee studies, 386
returnees studies, 383, 392
South Tyrol, 528
transfer studies, 27, 28, 76, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 198, 199, 201, 202, 203, 204, 206, 207, 225, 226, 228, 229, 232, 233, 235
varieties of, 103
English as a foreign language (EFL), 253, 480, 481
English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), 301, 308
English as a second language (ESL), 143
English as a third language (L3), 65, 103–106, 204–208, 467
English as an international language, 106, 466, 519
English-Medium Instruction (EMI) programs, 303, 306, 383, 391, 495
entropy, language, 506
Eppler, E. D., 410, 417
Equivalence Constraint, 406, 407
ERASMUS, 297
errors, 279, 479, 521, 641, 703, 707
Estanga, A., 563
ethnographic studies, 102, 104
ethnolinguistic vitality, 80
Ettlinger, M., 733
Eubank, L., 28
Eurobarometer, 271, 466
European Commission Social Summit, 332
European Higher Education Area, 298
European Language Portfolio (PEL), 298
European Schools (ES), 302, 305
Event Related Potentials (ERPs)
acquisition and processing studies, 664
artificial languages, 728, 731, 733
attrition studies, 319, 321
brain plasticity, 526
code-switching studies, 418, 443, 445
cognate studies, 171
indices of new learning, 498, 499, 500
multilingual processing research, 670, 675
phonological studies, 122
pragmatic studies, 245, 261
transfer, 669
evolution, 44, 47
exaptation, 44
executive control tasks, 581
executive functioning. see also cognitive control
executive functioning (EF), 244, 467, 555, 556, 559, 584, 586, 607
exoskeletal models, 409, 421
experience-based models, 451
experimental case studies, 708
expertise-related behavior, 590
explicit feedback, 476
explicit instruction
artificial languages, 731
European Schools, 305
facilitative transfer, 334
L3 acquisition, 476, 478
pragmatics, 254, 260
exposure measurement tools, 542
exposure to language. see also early exposure
education, 305
language impairment, 647–648
exposure, assessing, 649–650
eye-tracking, 174, 245, 247, 261, 418, 442, 664
face-threatening communicative acts, 245, 258
Factor Model, 700
Failed Functional Features Hypothesis (FFFH), 27
Falk, Y., 31, 32, 55, 125, 150, 151, 152, 197, 207, 220, 354, 391, 469, 663, 670, 673, 705, 706, 709
Fallah, N., 198, 226, 362, 392, 474
false friends/deceptive cognates, 146, 147, 173–174, 319, 686
Faroqi-Shah, Y., 644
Fase, W., 74
Feature Reassembly Hypothesis, 335
Felix, S. W., 481
Fernández-Sanjurjo, J., 306
Festman, J., 498
Finland, 148, 480
Finlayson, R., 421, 422
Finnish, 148, 501, 586, 715
first language acquisition, 152, 271
Five Graces Group, 67
Flanker tasks, 454, 526, 533, 556, 609, 642
Flege, J. E., 123, 322
Flores, C., 383, 384, 387, 388, 390, 394
Flores, N., 297, 300, 384
fluency, 102, 708
fluency tasks, 529, 534
Flynn, S., 25, 32, 55, 125, 198, 220, 225, 355, 393, 470, 670, 709, 756
fMRI, 498, 501, 503, 526, 556, 565, 585, 589, 591, 592, 593, 595, 733
focus fronting, 361
Folstein, M. F., 621
Fombonne, E., 636, 650
forced-choice (FC) goodness task, 122
Foucault, M., 107
fractional anisotropy (FA), 524, 538, 563, 580, 586
Franceschini, R., 713
Frank, S., 419, 671, 672
Frederickson, N., 638
free association tasks, 167
Free Morpheme Constraint, 406
French
attrition studies, 82
case study methods, 703, 706
code-switching studies, 442, 448, 449, 450, 451, 452, 453
cognates, 154, 172, 184, 333
colonialism, 295
early childhood studies, 278, 284, 287, 289
ERP study into learning of, 498
instructed L3 acquisition, 477
Luxembourg, 302
mirror-image group studies, 663
multilingual education, 84, 296, 305, 306
phonological studies, 118, 122, 365, 366, 367
returnees studies, 391
Sarah Williams case, 704
Switzerland, 307
transfer studies, 27, 31, 149, 150, 151, 152, 181, 183, 184, 225, 226, 233, 333, 334
frequency, 417, 446, 451, 454, 455, 667, 686
Frequentist statistical modeling, 745, 746, 748, 750, 751, 759, 761, 768
Fricke, M., 442, 444
frontal cortices, 593
frontal lobes, 557
fronto-parietal control network, 555, 562
Frontotemporal Dementia (FDT), 555
full transfer, 195–210, 219, 223–224, 232
Full Transfer Full Access (FTFA), 27, 219, 223, 470, 674
Full Transfer Potential (FTP), 220, 236
fully combined design, 229
function words, 152, 157
Functional Head Constraint, 408, 418
fundamental difference hypothesis, 50
Fürstenau, S., 480
fused lexicons, 282
Gabriel, C., 365, 366
Galicia, 103, 307
Gall, M., 696, 716
gap filling tasks, 234
García Mayo, M. del P., 226, 361
Garcia, G.D., 744, 745, 752, 757
García, O., 83, 99, 297, 300, 480
gating paradigms, 445
Geiss, M., 365, 371
gender agreement, 235, 339, 358, 420, 445, 447, 449
generalizability, 69, 261, 278, 331, 697, 737
generative approaches, 23–38, 221, 406, 407, 709
German
accent studies, 368
attrition studies, 328, 330, 334
code-switching studies, 441
cognates, 146, 154, 172, 184
cognitive control, 528
cognitive control studies, 523
DESI study, 473
early childhood studies, 274, 275, 281, 284, 285, 287, 288
grammaticality judgment tasks, 669
heritage speakers, 358, 365, 381
instructed L3 acquisition, 474, 477, 478
language dominance studies, 363, 365
lexical studies, 172, 174, 175, 176
Luxembourg, 302
medium of instruction, 496
multilingual education, 84, 302
multilingual processing research, 670
phonological studies, 118, 122, 127, 130, 131, 132, 371
possessive pronouns, 668
returnees, 384
returnees studies, 388
Sarah Williams case, 704
South Tyrol, 528
Switzerland, 307
transfer studies, 31, 148, 149, 150, 152, 154, 156, 179, 183, 204, 226, 232, 234, 333, 358, 366, 470
Germany, 355, 468, 470, 476
Giancaspro, D., 36, 201, 359, 360, 371, 674
Gilham, P., 480
globalization, 295, 297, 301
globus pallidus, 581, 583
Go/No-Go task, 522, 529
Gogoi, D. V., 79
Gold, B. T., 563, 565, 615
Goldberg, M., 495
Goldrick, M., 410
Gollan, T.H., 611, 635
Gombos, G., 67
González Alonso, J., 77, 221, 359, 360, 392, 393, 471, 472, 475, 669, 670, 671, 675, 728, 737
Goral, M., 642, 644, 645, 646, 647, 648
Gorgone, M., 205, 206, 207
Gould, S. J., 44
Government and Binding, 407, 408
Government Constraint, 408
governmentality, 107
Gradient Symbolic Computation, 410
grammaticality judgment task (GJT), 207, 226, 234, 359, 474, 499, 662, 669, 670, 671, 728, 735
gray matter, 524, 526, 528, 534, 538, 539, 543, 557, 562, 564, 578, 581, 582, 583–586, 615
Greek, 29, 251, 640, 644, 707
Green, D. W., 170, 222, 442, 454, 456, 495, 498, 507, 581, 585, 587, 589, 590, 594, 606, 608, 609, 611, 622, 641, 704
Grey, S., 729, 731, 734
Grice, P., 246, 250
Gries, S. Th., 690, 691, 692
Griessler, M., 332, 333
Griffiths Mental Developmental Scale, 637, 650
Grimstad, M., 409, 421
Grogan, A., 534
Grohmann, K., 648, 649
Grosjean, F., 51, 52, 170, 271, 300, 704
Grundy, J. G., 583, 589, 610, 614
Grüter, T, 208
Guijarro-Fuentes, P., 30
Gullberg, M., 417, 501
Gullifer, J. W., 506, 541
Gulutsan, M., 71
Gumperz, J., 701
Gut, U., 116, 708
Guzzardo Tamargo, R. E., 446
Hack, E. E., 557, 560
Haennni Hoti, A. U., 473
Hahn, A., 475, 477, 478, 479, 481
Haim, O., 84
Håkanssonn, G., 640
Hall, C. J., 148, 150, 155, 329, 337, 707
Halle, M., 409
Halloran, B., 31
Hämäläinen, S., 586
Hambly, C., 636, 650
Hammarberg, B., 52, 55, 57, 70, 126, 149, 152, 686, 700, 704, 705, 706
Hamrick, P., 735, 736
harmonization, 414
Haugen, E., 98
Hawkins, R., 27
Hayakawa, S., 542, 577
Hebbs, D. O., 47, 49
Hebrew, 71, 84, 256, 277, 386, 495, 496, 498, 648
Heidlmayr, K., 522
Heim, S., 615
Hejazi, Z., 645
Heller, M., 100, 105
Herdina, P., 65, 67, 72, 73, 74, 79, 80, 221, 336, 339
Heredia, R. R., 467
heritage languages, 75, 288, 380, 413, see also returnees
heritage speakers, 354–373
early childhood, 503, 504
L2 immersion, 506
language dominance, 200, 392
multilingual processing research, 670
research subjects, 120
Hermas, A., 469, 663
Herring, J.-R., 417
Hervais-Adelman, A., 534, 538, 585, 589, 590, 616
Heschl’s gyrus, 580
Hesse, H.-G., 473
heteroglossic ideologies, 300, 306
Hicks, G., 320, 321
hierarchy of cues, 33, 197, 359
hippocampus, 557
Hirosh, Z., 496
Hiver, P., 68
Hoeks, J. C. J., 183
Hofer, B., 84
Hoffmann, C., 271, 273
Hofstadter, D. R., 50
Hokkien, 423
holistic approaches to multilingual education, 83–84
homographs/homophones, 173, 665
Hopp, H., 358, 392, 471
Housen, A., 305
Hox, J., 757, 763, 767
Hua, Z., 279
Huang, T., 72
Hudson, R., 410
Hufeisen, B., 700
Hyltenstam, K., 330, 711, 712
hypercorrection, 330
ideal speaker-listener, 404
identity
development of multilingual, 80
imagined, 104
inequality in, 100
nation-states, 98
symbolic competence, 308
ideology
critical sociolinguistics, 100–103, 106
education, 300
heteroglossic ideologies, 300, 306
multilingualism in education, 296
third language policies, 100–103
Ihle, A., 561
Illman, V., 481
immersion learning, 330, 336, 467, 506, 507, 581
immersion programs, 71, 296, 303, 305, 307
immigration. see migration
implicature, 246, 249–253
implicit/explicit knowledge, 664
implied meanings, 246
incommensurability, 417–419
individual differences
artificial languages, 734
case study methods, 706, 708
code-switching, 416, 446, 450, 455, 456
cognitive aging, 625
cognitive reserve, 562, 566
complex and dynamic systems, 67
developmental variation, 504
generative approaches, 37
language impairment, 633, 649
multilingual advantage, 495
native speakers, 500
sociolinguistics, 98
individual-level versus group-level data, 340
inequality, 96, 99, 100, 101, 105, 106
inferencing strategies, 154
inferior frontal cortices, 592
inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), 580, 615
inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus (IFOF), 524, 581, 586
inferior parietal lobe (IPL), 538, 584, 615
informal language learning practices, 308
inhibition
advanced learners, 225
age of acquisition, 231
attrition, 330
automatic inhibition, 608
code-switching, 439, 447, 450, 454, 455
cognates, 171, 665
cognitive aging, 608–609
cognitive control, 521, 533
computational models, 672
language acquisition research, 222
language impairment, 645
language regulation proposal, 496
multilingualism enhances, 244
psycholinguistics, 369
usage-based approaches, 57
inhibitory control
aging, 621
functional brain changes, 591
indices of new learning, 495
inhibitory control skills, 180
neural adaptations, 588
simultaneous interpreters, 535
Inhibitory Control Model, 170, 495, 589, 608
input flooding, 475, 477
Input–Practice–Output method, 478, 482
instructed L3 acquisition, 466–483
instrumental-supplies roles, 705, 706
intelligence, 733
interacting competencies, 53
Interactive Activation Model., 169
intercomprehension, 154, 304, 710–711
interdependence hypothesis, 75, 84
interdisciplinarity, 2, 44, 85, 127, 134
Interface Condition, 421
Interface Hypothesis, 251, 320, 335, 361
interference, 221, see also crosslinguistic influence (CLI), transfer
interlanguage development, 27, 54, 200, 202, 223, 224, 392, 468, 475–481, 675
Interlanguage Transfer Hypothesis, 33, 220
interlingual homographs/homophones. see also false friends/deceptive cognates
interlingual neighbors, 174
interlingual strategies, 154
interlocutors’ language(s), 274–276, 447, 506
International Conference on Third Language Acquisition, 65
International Conference on Third Language Acquisition and Multilingualism, 85, 115
International Journal of Multilingualism (IJM), 116
internationally adopted children, 389, 503
interpreters, 535–540, 584
intonation, 247
Iran, 255
irony, 252, 260
Italian
accent studies, 368, 370
attrition, 82
case study methods, 706, 707
code-switching, 441
dialects, 372
early childhood studies, 276, 278, 281, 283
heritage speaker studies, 366
language processing studies, 594
mirror-image group studies, 663
multilingual processing research, 670
phonological studies, 280, 365, 371
South Tyrol, 528
Switzerland, 307
transfer studies, 84, 148, 152, 154, 363
Iverson, M., 29, 36, 37, 357, 358, 359, 364, 688
Jabbari, A., 392, 709
Jake, J., 411, 412
Jang, H., 333
Japan, 382
Japanese
cognitive reserve, 560
early childhood studies, 248, 274, 275, 287, 288
language impairment studies, 640
language processing studies, 440
motivation studies, 104
phonological studies, 117
returnees, 382, 391, 394
transfer studies, 76
Japanese Americans, 560
Japlish, 730
Jarvis, S., 319, 475
Jaspers, J., 99
Jegatheesan, B., 638
Jenkins, J., 301
Jensen, I. N., 230, 235, 361
Jessner, U., 65, 67, 70, 72, 73, 74, 75, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84, 85, 221, 332, 336, 339, 355, 662
Joshi, A., 407, 408, 411
Jouravlev, O., 595
judgment tasks, 201, 202, 226, see also grammaticality judgment task (GJT)
Kaan, E., 448, 451, 453, 455, 456
Kahneman, D., 128
Kaiser, A., 583, 586
Kamanga, C. M. M., 718
Kambanaros, M., 640, 644, 648, 649
Kapa, L. L., 735
Kasparian, K., 321
Kastenbaum, J. G., 650
Katsos, N., 251, 252, 260
Katzman, R., 557
Kaushanskaya, M., 494
Kavé, G., 560, 619, 620, 621
Kaya-Soykan, D., 390
Kay-Raining Bird, E., 636, 637, 638, 647, 650
Kazzazi, K., 284
Kecskes, I., 75
Kelemen, W. L., 333
Kellerman, E., 53, 369, 703
Kempert, S., 476, 482
Kheder, S., 451, 453, 455, 456
Klein, C., 539
Klein, R. M., 559
Klimava, H., 102
Knoph, P. I. M., 641, 644
Kohnert, K., 648
Koike, D.A., 256
Kolb, N., 230, 232
Kolers, P. A., 167
Kopečková, R., 76, 117, 126, 127, 131, 367, 370
Köpke, B., 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 337
Korean, 76, 289, 323, 330, 333, 372, 468, 528
koRpus, 685
Kosinski, R., 410
Kousaie, S., 616
Kowoll, M. E., 560
Koyuncuoglu, H., 386, 387
Kramsch, C., 80, 308, 714
Kroll, J. F., 130, 182, 438, 500, 501, 503, 505, 580, 667
Kruse, M., 686
Kubota, M., 382, 383
Kuhn, T., 417
Kujalowicz, A., 176, 181
Kupisch, T., 357, 362, 364, 369
Kurdish, 457
Kuribara, C., 730
Kuzmina, E., 648
Kwon, Y. H., 528
L1,
asymmetrical patterns of trilingual co-activation, 178–185
attrition, 327–332
complex and dynamic systems, 77
generative approaches, 31
inclusion in L3 research, 120
inhibition, 496
language status in transfer, 469
meaning-related transfer, 148
medium of instruction, 496
morphosyntax, 320
multilingual processing research, 668
neural signatures, 500
order of acquisition, 663
phonological attrition, 324
plasticity, 317, 323
pragmatic transfer from, 256
priming asymmetry, 666, 667
research methods, 663
usage-based approaches, 55
vocabulary acquisition, 146–156
L2
attrition, 327–332
cognates, 666
complex and dynamic systems, 77
facilitative effects of L3 on, 332–334
generative approaches, 29, 31
medium of instruction, 495
multilingual processing research, 668
order of acquisition, 663
phonology, 118
priming asymmetry, 666
reversibility of changes to, 331
transfer, 686
usage-based approaches, 57
vocabulary acquisition, 146–156, 171
vocabulary acquisition (L3), 179
L2 Status Factor Hypothesis (L2SF)
case study methods, 705, 709
confounding factors, 673, 674
EEG/ERP, 675
full transfer studies, 197, 207
generative approaches, 31
heritage speakers, 354
instructed settings, 469, 472
lexical studies, 151
morphosyntactic studies, 55
neurophysiological measures, 670
phonological studies, 125
research methodologies, 662
returnees, 391
usage-based approaches, 57
Labov, W., 406, 415
Ladin, 528, 594
Lado, B., 730, 744
Lago, S., 668
LAILA (Linguistic awareness in language attrition), 81
Lakens, D., 228
Langacker, R., 50
Language and Social Background Questionnaire (LSBQ), 121, 542, 621
language control network, 580, 581, 587, 606, 614
language control, functional changes to, 588–590
language dominance
code-switching, 278, 413, 439, 445–446, 454
cognitive reserve/maintenance, 621–622
Dominant Language Constellation (DLC), 701
early childhood trilingualism, 275, 277, 278
full transfer, 198, 199, 205
heritage speakers, 357, 362–365, 366, 367, 371
inhibition, 496, 497
instructed L3 acquisition, 473, 478
long-term consequences of switch to community language, 503
medium of instruction, 495, 496
pragmatics, 248, 255
property-by-property transfer, 226, 232
reactivation, 388
returnees, 391–394
Language Experience and Proficiency (LEXP) score, 534
Language History Questionnaire (LHQ3), 542, 622
language impairment, 633–652
language loss, 155, 185, see also attrition, aphasia
language maintenance, 74, 80, 287
language maintenance effort (LME), 336
language mix. see also code-switching
language mixing, 249
language modes, 51
language of the heart, 70
language planning/policies, 80, 100–103, 296–297, 332
language portraits, 70, 715
language regulation proposal, 496
language resources
inequality, 99
plurilingualism, 308
Language Synthesis, 410
Language Use Questionnaire (LUQ), 650
languaging, 83, see also translanguaging
Larsen-Freeman, D., 67, 71
Larson, E., 329
Lasagabaster, D., 307
Late Positive Complex ERP components, 443, 445
latent language, 389
Latin, 476, 670, 703
Latin Project, The, 727, 729, 730, 731
Lavaur, J.-M., 184, 667
Lawton, D. M., 561
learning by parsing, 35
learning styles, 734
Lechner, S., 358
Lee, S.-E., 528
left anterior temporal lobe, 581
left arcuate fasciculus (AF), 586
left frontal pole, 584
left fronto-temporal lobule, 595
left fusiform gyrus, 593
left inferior frontal gyrus, 539, 562, 581, 589
left inferior frontal pars opercularis, 591
left inferior parietal lobule, 528, 565, 580
left lateral frontal cortex, 565
left middle-anterior cingulate gyrus, 538, 584
left PCG, 581
left PFC, 592
left putamen, 534
left STG, 591, 593
Lemhöfer, K., 172, 175, 176, 179, 180, 666
Lerman, A., 645, 646
Leung, Y-K. I, 25, 27, 28, 30, 55, 220
Levelt, W .J. M., 704
Lewandowska, H., 122
Lexical Aspect Hypothesis, 685
lexical association model, 182
lexical decision tasks, 166, 172, 642
lexicon
artificial languages, 725
attrition, 319–320, 328–330, 332
characteristics of the L3, 142–157
code-switching, 408, 413–414, 421, 451–453
early childhood trilingualism, 282
language impairment, 640, 644
lexical attrition, 182
lexical competition, 168, 520, 523
lexical gaps, 151, 249, 275
mental lexicons, 155–156, 221, 223, 224, 282, 704
multilingual advantage in vocabulary learning, 495
multilingual processing research, 664–668
processing in a multilingual lexicon, 165–186
returnees, 386
usage-based approaches, 46
Li Wei, 83, 99
Li, P., 622
lifespan approaches, 73, 363, 364, 502, 503, 504, 606, 618, 621, 625, 713
Lijewska, A., 172, 666
Lillo-Martin, D., 410
Linck, J. A., 610
Lindqvist, C., 149, 150, 151, 152, 154, 706
linguistic autobiographies, 698, 711, 712–714
linguistic capital, 297
linguistic entrepreneurship, 105, 107
linguistic imperialism, 103, 298, 300
Linguistic Proximity Model (LPM)
case study methods, 709
full transfer studies, 197, 198, 207, 219
generative approaches, 34
heritage speakers, 355, 360, 361, 363, 366, 367
instructed L3 acquisition, 471
methodology, 235, 237
phonological studies, 125, 127
property-by-property transfer, 221–226, 471
usage-based approaches, 56
linguistic repertoires/resources
attrition, 318
case study methods, 699, 701, 711, 717
classroom, 480
code-switching, 421
common space hypothesis, 52
competence, 300
complex and dynamic systems, 67, 80
immigration effects on, 623
instructed L3 acquisition, 480
linguistic competence, 52
polyglots, 711
visualizing the multilingual subject, 715
linguistic security, 303
Lippi-Green, R., 99
Lissón, P., 685
literacy, 75, 298, 300, 372, 386, 497, 623, 639, 714
Liu, H., 440
Liu, Y.-C., 640
Llama, R., 367
Llinàs-Grau, M., 333
Llisterri, J., 207
Lloyd-Smith, A., 126, 363, 364, 367, 370, 393
loanwords (borrowing), 415, 416, 417, 424, 452
Lohndal, T., 404
longitudinal studies
artificial languages, 731
attrition, 322, 327, 330, 338, 387
brain structure, 581, 590, 591, 595, 596
case study methods, 697, 706
cognitive aging, 624
cognitive control, 528, 540, 541
cognitive reserve, 560, 566, 569, 570, 618, 624
early childhood trilingualism, 286
early language learning education, 302
education, 302, 306, 481
morphosyntactic transfer, 233
phonology, 116, 120, 127, 132
returnees, 392, 393, 395
vocabulary acquisition, 150
López, L., 407, 410
López-Morelos, L. P., 367
Lövdén, M., 613
Löwel, S., 47
Lozano, C., 28, 29, 692
Lu, H.-C., 685
Luk, G., 526, 533, 563, 581
Luo, J., 334
Luxembourg, 302, 305, 306
Luxemburgish, 302
machine learning, 672
MacIntyre, P., 81
MacSwan, J., 408, 409, 421, 424
MacWhinney, B., 47, 336
Madrazo, R., 71
Madsen, L. Malai, 99
Mahootian, S., 408, 418
Maluch, J.T., 476, 482
Mandarin, 107, 248, 274, 279, 288, 334, 365, 494, 501, 640
Mao, C., 333, 334
Marantz, A., 409
Marian, V., 71, 154, 175, 494, 520, 527, 542, 557, 559, 577, 613, 615
markedness, 118
Marsden, H., 359, 360, 471
masked priming, 330
masked translation priming, 184
Matrix Language Frame (MLF), 407, 409, 411–413, 417, 418, 420, 422, 423
Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics corpus, 417
Mayr, R., 280
Mazandarani, 362, 393
McClelland, J. L., 48, 169
McLaughlin, J., 498, 499, 500
McNeish, D., 757, 763, 767
mean diffusivity (MD), 580
Meara, P., 143
Mechelli, A., 583
Media Lengua, 99
medium of instruction, 181, 303, 305, 306, 383, 475, 495, see also English-Medium Instruction (EMI) programs
memory. see also procedural memory, working memory, declarative memory
artificial languages, 735
computational models, 672
memory consolidation, 384
prior knowledge, 498
word representation versus word processing, 166, 168–170
men, 73
Mendikoetxea, A., 692
mental grammars, 404, 664
mental lexicons, 143, 155–156, 165–186, 221, 223, 224, 282, 704
Mesthrie, R., 104
metacognition, 72, 78, 82
metacognitive advantage, 333
metalinguistic awareness
artificial languages, 729, 731
bilingual advantage, 468
bilingualism enhances, 244, 255
case study methods, 705
children, 358
complex and dynamic systems, 72, 76, 78
early childhood trilingualism, 289
facilitative transfer from L3, 333
instructed L3 acquisition, 473, 474, 477, 482
L1 transfer, 32, 470
L2 transfer, 469
multilanguage aptitude, 79
multilingual processing research, 668
phonology, 119, 131
positive vocabulary transfer, 154
research variable, 662, 664
metapragmatic awareness, 253, 254, 258
methodological essentialism, 106
M-Factor/M-effect, 78
Michalke, M., 685
Michiels, B., 150
Mickan, A., 182
middle frontal gyrus (MFG), 580
Miecznikowski, J., 713
Miertsch, B., 641, 644
Mieszkowska, K., 154
migration
cognitive reserve/maintenance, 622–623
critical sociolinguistics, 106
EU language policies, 297
language planning/policies, 101
multilingualism in education, 295, 297
returnees, 380–395
mild cognitive impairment (MCI), 559, 560, 563, 568, 618
mimicry tasks, 131
Mini-Basque, 725
Mini-English, 728
Mini-French, 725
mini-languages, 670, 671, 725, 737
Mini-Latin, 671, 727
minimal effort, principle of, 155
Minimal Trees, 219
Minimalist Distributed Morphology model (MDM), 410
Minimalist Program, 408, 410, 412, 417, 418, 421
Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), 621
Mini-Spanish, 728
minority language learning, 102, 105, 274, 287, 295, 304
mirror-image group design, 228, 327, 329, 337, 663, 673–675, 688, 708
mismatch negativity (MMN), 122
Mitchell, M., 50
mixed language systems, 99
mixed-methods approaches, 340
Miyake, A., 608
modeling speech acquisition, theoretical, 123–130
Modular Online Growth and Use of Language (MOGUL), 335
Mok, P. P. K., 172, 174
monolingualism
critical sociolinguistics, 99
education policies, 296, 298, 300, 307
monolingual bias, 404
monolingual comparison groups, 688
monolingual controls, 392
research methodologies, 120, 121, 699
sociolinguistics, 98
Monstrud, M., 637
Montalbetti, M., 28
Montanari, S., 248, 249, 259, 260, 275, 278, 280, 282, 283, 287
Montrul, S., 202
Moreno, E. M., 443
Morgan-Short, K., 499, 725, 726, 731, 735
Morpheme Order Principle (MOP), 411, 421
morphosyntax
artificial languages, 725, 727, 728, 731
attrition, 320–321, 328–332, 333
case study methods, 708, 709
code-mixing, 277
code-switching, 406–413, 441, 445, 451
corpus research, 685
early childhood trilingualism, 283–285
full transfer, 195–210
generative approaches, 23–38
heritage speakers, 355, 357–365, 369–371
language impairment, 640, 648
multilingual processing research, 668–673
property-by-property transfer, 221–226
statistical modeling, 752, 755
Mosca, M., 440, 441
mouse-tracking, 247
moving window paradigm, 226
Moyer, M., 99, 107
MRI, 556, 568, 577–596, see also fMRI
Mukadam, N., 566
Müller, N., 284
multicompetence, 78, 83, 84
multiculturalism, 101
multilingual advantage, 75, 78, 494, 519–544, see also bilingual advantage
Multilink, 667, 672
multiliteracy, 714
multimodality, 300, 309, 405, 410, 438, 524
Multi-Phon project, 130–133
Multiple Grammars, 335
multi-property studies, 209
Muñoz, C., 305
Muysken, P., 99, 408, 413
myelin sheath, 579
Myers-Scotton, C., 411, 412, 417, 453
Mykhaylyk, R., 197
N200, 671, 675
N400, 447, 499, 670, 671, 675, 734
Na Ranong, S., 55
named entities, languages as, 52, 408
Narayanan, J., 555
Narcy Combes, M. F., 85
Nation, I. S. P., 145
nationalist discourses, 98
nation-building, 100
native speaker models, 500, 501, 508
native-like neural signatures, 499
native-speakerism, 83, 298, 308
Natural Growth Theory of Acquisition (NGTA), 128
naturalistic data, 414, 417, 418, 672, 690
Nayak, N., 731
negative quantifiers, 363
negative transfer, 147–153, 475, 478, see also code-switching
Nelson, C., 118, 132
neo-Cartesian approach to language, 45
neoliberalism, 105
neural compensation, 564–566, 570
neural computational models, 673
neural efficiency, 580, 589
neural networks, 47, 49, 231, 499, 500, 523, 672
neural reserve, 561–562, 565, 569, 617
neurocognition, 339, 384, 580–581
neuroimaging. see also electroencephalography (EEG), fMRI
artificial languages, 733
attrition studies, 319
cognitive aging, 624
cognitive control, 521, 529–535
cognitive reserve, 556, 563, 564, 568
compensation, 616
indices of new learning, 498, 499
insights from MRI, 577–596
multilingual processing research, 669–671, 675
neuroplasticicy, 524
open science principles, 543
phonological studies, 122
simultaneous interpreters, 535, 538
neurolinguistics
activation and inhibition, 222
case study methods, 705
code-switching, 440
complex and dynamic systems, 74
effects of cumulative experience, 231
mental lexicon, 155, 165–186
Natural Growth Theory of Acquisition (NGTA), 129
usage-based approaches to language, 45, 49
vocabulary acquisition, 152
neuroplasticity, 538
neuroscience
artificial languages, 728, 737
brain indices of new learning, 494–502
cognitive control, 523
cognitive reserve, 555–570
neutralization/nativization, 414
Neville, H., 725
New Mexico Spanish-English Bilingual corpus, 416
next-word prediction, 671
Nibun, Y., 275
Nicoladis, E., 274
Nigg, J. T., 608
Nogueira, L., 205, 206, 207
nonfacilitative transfer
attrition, 332
experimental methods, 229
generative approaches, 32, 35, 36, 37
heritage speakers, 359, 361, 362, 363, 364, 366
instructed L3 acquisition, 475
morphosyntactic properties, 201, 225
perceptual salience, 367
phonology, 126
usage-based approaches, 56, 57
nonverbal benefits to bi/multilingualism, 521
Norwegian, 35, 232, 234, 235, 360, 362, 641
noun drop, 358
novel utterance parsing, 49
null theory approaches, 407–410, 420
null-subject pronouns, 674
number agreement, 449
Nun Study, 560
Ó Laoire, M., 703
O’Rourke, B., 103
Obler, L. K., 643
obligatory occasion analysis, 709
Odlin, T., 469
official languages, 297, 302, 307
Oh, J. S., 372
older adults
brain plasticity, 524, 538
cognitive aging, 606–625
cognitive control, 541
cognitive reserve, 555–570
executive function, 506
neuroprotections of bilingualism, 504
Onishi, H., 76, 117
online acceptability judgment tasks, 418
online comprehension tasks, 442
on-line data elicitation techniques, 202, 226
online methodologies, 668
open science practices, 542
Optimality Theory, 414
order of acquisition
case study methods, 699
corpus research, 687
full transfer, 199, 205, 207
mirror-image groups, 674
pragmatics, 256
property-by-property transfer, 228, 232
research methodologies, 662
theories of, 663
orthography, 497
Ossher, L., 559
Otwinowska, A., 153
Otwinowska-Kasztelanic, A., 154
Overt Pronoun Constraint (OPC), 28
P300, 670, 671, 675, 729
P600, 499, 670, 671, 675, 732, 733
Pablos, L., 418
pallidum, 585
Pallier, C., 389
Pallotti, G., 337
Palmiere, D. T., 256
PAM/PAM-L2 (Perceptual Assimilation Model), 124
Papiamento, 417, 519
Paplikar, A., 639, 650
Papp, T., 75
Paquot, M., 692
Paradis, M., 31, 51, 52, 125, 152, 274, 319, 354, 391, 469, 642, 647, 649, 705
paradox of transfer, 75
Parafita Couto, M. C., 417, 418
Parasitic Model, 155, 707
parietal lobe, 524, 528, 562
Park, M., 468, 482
Parkinson’s disease, 556
Parma, A., 201
pars triangularis, 584, 591
partial transfer, 28, 57
partial-match strategies, 226
participant selection, 337
Pavlenko, A., 712
peak efficiency, 505, 521, 582, 587
pedagogy, 300, see also education
PEL (European Language Portfolio), 298
Pellegrini, C., 74
Peña, E.D., 649
Penn, C., 639
Pennycook, A., 104
Perani, D., 563
perceived language distance, 132
perceived relatedness measures, 132
perception tasks, 122, 339
perceptual salience, 367
Pereira Soares, S. M., 670, 675
Pérez-Vidal, C., 297, 304
Perquin, M., 561
Persian, 226, 362, 393, 642, 645, 709
personally adopted language (PAL), 297
Petitto, L. A., 502
Phillips, N. A., 616
Phillipson, R., 103, 298
phoneme detection task, 177
phoneme monitoring paradigm, 181
phonetic drift, 322–323
phono-distractor effects, 179, 181
Phonological Permeability Hypothesis (PPH), 327
phonology
acquisition of L3 phonology, 115–134
attrition, 321–324, 327–328, 334
case study methods, 708
code-switching, 444, 450
cognates, 173
crosslinguistic interaction (CLIN), 76
early childhood trilingualism, 279–281
heritage speakers, 365–368, 369–371
multi-property studies, 209
partially overlapping words, 175
perception, 117
phonological awareness, 497
phonological short-term memory, 497
Typological Primacy Model, 359
phono-translation variant of PWI paradigm, 175–177
Piaget, J., 48
Pichan, C., 365
picture matching tasks, 207
picture naming tasks, 166, 168, 175, 179–182, 444, 507, 529, 534, 585, 588, 589, 592, 594, 644, 666
picture story tasks, 121
picture-picture interference paradigm, 665
picture-sentence matching tasks, 662
picture-word interference (PWI) paradigm, 175–177, 180
Pierce, L. J., 503
Pietikäinen, S., 715
Pietilä, P., 481
Pili-Moss, D., 735
Piller, I., 104
plasticity
brain reserve, 562
cognitive reserve, 568
constraints on, 499
language system, 492
neuroplasticity, 50, 74, 326, 493, 523–527, 538, 555, 577–596
simultaneous interpreters, 538
Pliatsikas, C., 74, 498, 500, 505, 534, 577, 580, 582, 584, 586
Plonsky, L., 744
pluri-culturalism, 308
plurilingual processing model, 75
plurilingualism, 64, 271, 296, 307
Poarch, G. J., 173, 522
Poch-Olivé, D., 207
Poeste, M., 278
Polinsky, M., 356, 372, 389
Polish, 72, 117, 118, 122, 127, 130, 131, 132, 153, 154, 172, 181, 327
politeness, 246, 256, 258, 285
polyglots, 74, 595, 711–712
Pomak, 707
Poplack, S., 406, 407, 416, 417
Portolés-Falomir, L., 246, 258
Portuguese. see also Brazilian Portuguese
attrition studies, 328, 329
bilingual Spanish–English learners of (study), 198–199
colonialism, 295
returnees, 381, 384, 386, 388, 390
transfer studies, 196, 198, 200, 203
Vaupés region, 423
possessive pronouns, 668
Post, R. E., 418
posterior SMG, 583
posterior superior frontal gyrus, 538
Poster-to-Anterior Shift in Aging (PASA), 614
poststructuralism, 715
Pot, A., 504, 506, 609, 612
Potter, M. C., 182
poverty of the stimulus (PoS) properties, 25, 54
power, 96, 100, 106, 107, 246
pragmatics, 243–262
code-switching, 414, 440, 441, 442, 446, 447, 451, 456
early childhood trilingualism, 274, 285–286
English-medium instruction (EMI), 306
pragmatic advantage, 250, 253, 262
pre-frontal cortex, 534, 539, 592, 593, 614
pre-motor cortex, 592
prenominal possessives, 362
pre-SMA, 589
prestige, 80, 102, 105, 383
priming and translation studies, 182–185, 224
priming animacy tasks, 667
priming asymmetry, 666–668
priming methods, 664
priming tasks, 444, 666
Principal Components Analysis, 340
Principle of Contrast, 282
Principles and Parameters (P&P), 26, 28
prior beliefs in statistical modeling, 751–754, 757, 763
prior linguistic experience
artificial languages, 729–730
Cumulative Enhancement Model (CEM), 32
phonology, 117
research variable, 661
Prior, A., 611
Privileged L1 Transfer Hypothesis, 55
probabilistic grammars, 672
probabilistic models, 48, 413, 691, 745
procedural memory, 31, 57, 152, 370, 391, 469, 735
processing hierarchies, 728
processing speed, 333, 334, 439, 443, 444, 448, 561
proficiency. see also competence
artificial languages, 726, 732, 734
attrition, 319, 328, 329
beginner learners, 208
brain plasticity, 524, 581
case study methods, 705, 706, 708
code-switching, 413, 437, 440, 445–446, 453, 454, 455
code-switching as sign of, 404
cognate processing, 172
cognitive control, 533
cognitive reserve, 556, 621–622
compensation, 616
complex and dynamic systems, 83
corpus research, 687, 688
decrease in crosslinguistic influence as proficiency increases, 147
facilitative effects of bilingual experience, 78
full transfer, 200, 205
instructed L3 acquisition, 473, 474, 481
isolation from age of acquisition, 338
L2 proficiency and transfer, 56
language impairment, 642, 646, 647, 649–650, 651
language processing, 593–595
linked to language status, 151
measurement tools, 121
multicomponential dynamic models of, 74
multilingual advantage, 495
multilingual education, 84, 305
native-like, 102
native-like neural signatures, 499
near-native, 202, 338
neural adaptations, 585
phonology, 118, 121
pragmatics, 250, 251, 254, 260, 261
processing speed, 334
returnees, 393
transfer from linguistic to cognitive level, 75
pronunciation and cognate effects, 173
property-by-property transfer, 219–237
case study methods, 709
compared to full transfer, 195, 197, 198
heritage speakers, 360–362, 366–367
instructed L3 acquisition, 472
instructed settings, 471–472
phonological studies, 126
research methods, 663
usage-based approaches, 58
prospective studies, 560, 566, 568, see also longitudinal studies
psycholinguistics
activation and inhibition, 222
bilingual advantage, 369
case study methods, 704
code-switching, 405, 410, 437–457
computational models, 672
Dynamic Model of Multilingualism, 69, 72, 73, 74, 79
effects of cumulative experience, 231
experimental methods, 664
incidental learning, 309
mental lexicon, 156, 165–186
Natural Growth Theory of Acquisition (NGTA), 129
pragmatics, 247
psychotypology, 77, 148, 154, 703, 711
Puig-Mayenco, E., 36, 207, 228, 299, 333, 359, 360, 363, 393, 394, 468, 471, 474
Pujolar, J., 107
putamen, 534, 541, 581, 583, 585, 590
Putnam, M. T., 410
Pylkkänen, L., 440
quantity of exposure, 364, 384, 393, 446, 541, 647–648, 667
Quay, S., 248, 259, 260, 272, 274, 278, 287, 288
Quebec, 296
Quechua, 99
R, 747, 754–757
radial diffusivity (DR), 563
radial diffusivity (RD), 580
Rahimi Domakani, M., 254
Raven’s Progressive Matrices Test, 642
Ray, J., 644
reactivation, 388–391
read-aloud paradigms, 442
real-time processing mechanisms studies, 668
reductionism, 44, 54, 58
regions of interest analysis, 594
regressive transfer, 37
relearning of a heritage language, 372, 389, 394
Relevance Theory, 247
repair mechanisms, 671
repertoires. see linguistic repertoires/resources
requests, 246, 254, 256, 257, 285
retrospective narratives, 713
returnees, 380–395
Revised Hierarchical Model (RHM), 182, 505, 667
revitalization, 303
Reynell Developmental Language Scale, 637, 650
rhotic /r/, 367
rich memory, 43
Rietveld, T., 341
right angular gyrus, 591
right caudate nucleus, 538
right inferior frontal gyrus, 533, 562, 588
right middle frontal gyrus, 565
right PFC, 594
right superior parietal lobe, 538
Ringbom, H., 147, 148, 151, 184, 256, 355, 475
Robinson, P., 734
Romaine, S., 271
Romansch, 307
Roquet, H., 304, 306
Rothman, J., 27, 30, 33, 34, 36, 54, 55, 77, 125, 197, 203, 204, 208, 220, 221, 222, 223, 225, 226, 232, 327, 357, 358, 360, 368, 382, 392, 393, 468, 470, 472, 475, 497, 663, 670, 671, 673, 674, 675, 709, 728, 755, 756, 757, 758, 765
rule-discovery tasks, 731
Rumelhart, D. E., 48, 169
Russian
attrition studies, 329
cognitive consequences, 520
complex and dynamic systems, 72
generative approaches, 35
mirror-image group studies, 228, 663
self-report studies, 714
transfer studies, 360, 366
Sachs, R., 736
Saffran, J. R., 48
Safont-Jordà, M. P., 253, 254, 255, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 285
salience, 367, 728
Sami, 715
sample sizes, 16, 340, 691, 744, 747, 753, 757, 758, 762, 763, 767
San Isidro, X., 307
Sánchez, L., 32, 197, 470, 705
Sanders, A. E., 560
Santorini, B., 418
Santos, H., 203
Sanz, C., 304, 473, 727, 744
Sarah Williams case, 704
Savings paradigm, 335
scalar implicatures (SI), 247, 250
Scalpel Model (SM)
case study methods, 709
generative approaches, 34
heritage speakers, 355, 360, 361, 363, 367
methodology, 235, 237
phonological studies, 126, 127
transfer studies, 197, 198, 219, 221–226, 471
usage-based approaches, 56
schemas, 46, 50
Schieffelin, B., 107
Schiffmann, H., 701
Schmid, M., 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 337
Schriefers, H., 176, 180
Schroeder, S. R., 71, 527, 557, 559, 613, 615
Schwartz, B., 27, 54, 195, 197, 219, 221, 223, 470, 674
Schweizer, T. A., 564
Schwieter, J. W., 478
Searle, J. R., 97, 245
Sebba, M., 414
second language acquisition (SLA)
artificial languages, 724
case study methods, 696, 699
generative approaches, 25
implicit versus explicit knowledge, 664
prior linguistic knowledge, 662
Select operation, 409
selective transfer. see property-by-property transfer
selective vs. nonselective lexical access, 168
self-paced reading tasks, 207, 247, 442, 664, 668, 669
self-reports, 712–714
Selinker, L., 148
semantic blocking, 183
semantic transfer, 151, see also lexicon
semi-artificial languages, 725, 735, 737
sentence judgment tasks, 247
sentence production tasks, 593
separate lexicons hypothesis, 167
sequential bilinguals
attrition, 318
heritage speakers, 356
neural adaptations, 586, 592
returnees, 382, 383
sequential multilingualism
cognitive control, 534
generative studies, 24
pragmatics, 244, 257
research methodologies, 663
research variables, 662
shared semantic representation, 667
Sharma, B., 107
Sharwood Smith, M., 53, 221, 222, 369
short-term memory, 497, see also working memory
Siemund, P., 295, 358
sign languages, 410, 438
silent free narration task, 592
Similarity Convergence Hypothesis (SCH), 328
Simon effect, 533
Simon tasks, 72, 454, 455, 523, 565, 591
simulation models, 672
simultaneous bilinguals
brain structure adaptations, 581
full transfer, 205
heritage speakers, 356, 381
returnees, 383
simultaneous interpreters, 535–540, 541, 584, 587, 589, 591, 595
Singer, W., 47
single group methodology, 227, 235
single word cued language switching, 437, 443, 445
Singleton, D., 155, 701, 703, 718
Siriano, 424
Sivakumar-Thiyagarajah, A., 278
Siyambalapitiya, S., 636, 637
Slabakova, R., 34, 52, 56, 126, 127, 197, 198, 219, 224, 226, 355, 361, 471, 709
Smidfelt, L., 154, 710
Smiljanic, R., 324
Smolensky, P., 410
Snape, N., 384
social class, 107
social exclusion, 99, 101
social networks, 506, 507
social status, 256
social-linguistic engineering, 302
societal multilingualism, 295, 449, 456, 494, 519, 647, 718
sociocognitive constraints, 414
socioeconomic background, 304
socioeconomic status, 355, 608, 688
sociolinguistics
code-switching, 405, 413, 415, 448, 456, 457
complex and dynamic systems, 79–81
critical sociolinguistics, 96–108
diversity and variation, 494, 505–508
language maintenance, 80
linguistic repertoires, 701
sociopolitical definitions of “language,” 52, 98
Sorace, A., 251, 320, 331, 361
source language (SL) of transfer, 54
South Africa, 81, 421
South Tyrol, 81, 528, 541
Spanish
Aruba, 519
attrition studies, 182, 328, 329, 333
Basque country, 306, 355, 361
case study methods, 703, 706
Catalonia, 303, 304, 363, 471
CATE corpus, 685
code-switching, 99, 405, 406, 408, 418, 437, 440, 442, 444, 445, 446, 447, 448
cognitive control, 333
colonialism, 295
complex and dynamic systems, 73
corpus research, 416, 686
diverse linguistic environments, 501
early childhood studies, 248, 275, 277, 278, 279, 280, 282, 283
generative studies, 29, 34, 36
heritage speakers, 200, 359, 360, 361, 364, 366, 367, 371
instructed L3 acquisition, 473, 476
lexical processing studies, 184
medium of instruction, 300, 495
minority language learning, 102
mirror-image group design, 228
multilingual advantage, 494
phonological studies, 118, 173, 177, 327, 330
pragmatic studies, 253, 257, 259, 285
social contexts, 507
transfer studies, 29, 76, 148, 149, 150, 152, 156, 196, 198, 200, 202, 203, 204, 205, 225, 226, 229, 235, 358
varieties, 300
Vaupés region, 423
Spanish as a lingua franca, 309
speech acts, 245, 253–259
speech communities, 405, 413, 416, 441
Speech Learning Model (SLM), 123, 322, 335
speech modeling, theoretical, 123–130
speech production tasks, 121
speech rate, 442, 444
speech recognition, 672
speech rhythm, 327
speeded judgment tasks, 668
Sperber, D., 247
Spivey, M., 520
Spracherleben (“Experiencing Language”) Research Group, 715
Sprouse, R., 27, 54, 195, 197, 219, 221, 223, 470, 674
stabilization, 497
Stachnevich, J., 714
Stadt, R., 233
Stafford, C. A., 476, 483, 729, 730
Stake, R. E., 696, 698
Stammers, J. R., 417
Stan, 747
standard language ideology (SLI), 300, 301
standard norms in critical sociolinguistics, 98, 99
Starr, R.L., 468, 482
statistical learning, 48, 671
statistical models, 691, 698, 744–768
Stavans, A., 256, 271, 273, 277
Stedje, A., 148, 152
Stefanowitsch, A., 683, 692
Stein, M., 581
Stern, Y., 557, 558, 562, 563, 564, 569, 607, 613
Stewart, E., 182, 505, 667
stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA), 176, 180, 181
Stocco, A., 526
storytelling task, 386
Stringer, D., 394
Stroop Color Word Test, 639
Stroop paradigm, 182, 522
Stroop tasks, 522, 617, 642
Study Abroad (SA), 297, 301, 307
subsystems hypothesis, 51
subtractive bilingualism, 255
subtractive language group design, 228, 237
Suhonen, L.-V., 329
Sullivan, M. D., 529
super-diversity, 716
superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF), 524
superior parietal lobule (SPL), 580
superior temporal gyrus (STG), 580
supplementary motor area (SMA), 587
supplementary motor cortex, 592
supply–demand framework, 527, 615, 705
supramarginal gyrus (SMG), 580, 584
Swedish, 118, 147, 148, 149, 150, 152, 154, 330, 355, 586, 704, 706, 710
Swisher, V., 277
switch costs, 167, 439–441, 442–448, 453–454, 611
Switzerland, 307, 473
symbolic capital, 102, 105
symbolic competence, 308
syntax. see morphosyntax
synthetic approach to multilingualism, 74
Sypiańska, J., 72, 327
Syrett, K., 251
System Morpheme Principle (SMP), 411, 421
system, language as a, 46, 64–85, 98
Szczepaniak, A., 610
Szubko-Sitarek, W., 173
Tagalog, 275, 282, 283, 423
Tagarelli, K. M., 725
Taiwanese, 279, 640, 685
Takahashi, K., 104
task-switching abilities, 611–612
task-switching paradigms, 539, 565
tau levels, 563, 620
Tavakol, M., 709
teachers, 302
instructed L3 acquisition, 477, 478, 480–481, 483
teacher training, 714
training, 480, 481
use of L1 and L2, 474
TEAM (Treatment Effects in Aphasia in Multilingual people) model, 646
textbooks, 481, 483
thalamus, 581, 585
theoretical modeling of L3 speech, 123–130
Theory of Mind, 244, 247, 248
think-aloud protocols, 154
third grammar, 407–410
Thompson, A.S., 79
tidyverse, 754
Timmer, K., 610
tip of the tongue states, 222
Tiv, M., 251, 252, 260
Todeva, E., 698, 713, 718
Tollefson, J. W., 100, 101, 106
Tomoschuk, B., 177, 181
topicalization, 361
Toribio, A. J., 405, 413, 415, 425
Torres Cacoullos, R., 415, 416
Tower of London Test, 639
Trail Making Test, 639
trajectories of learning, 497, 504
transdisciplinary approaches, 68
transfer. see also crosslinguistic influence (CLI)
artificial languages, 726–729, 737
corpus research, 688
early childhood trilingualism, 273
education, 299
EEG/ERP research, 675
facilitation as research factor, 663
form versus meaning, 147, 151, 329
full transfer, 195–210, 223–224
function words versus content words, 152
generative approaches, 25, 30–36
heritage speakers, 354–373
instructed settings, 469–472
instrumental/supplier roles, 150
language dominance, 362
language status, 469
literacy skills, 75
mirror-group experimental design, 673
multidirectional, 77, 119
negative transfer, 147–153
neurophysiological measures of, 669
order of acquisition, 663
paradox of transfer, 75
phonology, 118
positive transfer, 153–155
pragmatics, 256
property-by-property transfer, 219–237
research methodologies, 662
returnees, 391
second language acquisition (SLA) research, 662
statistical modeling, 751, 756
transfer source selectivity, 28
usage-based approaches, 53, 54
vocabulary acquisition, 146–156
translanguaging
critical sociolinguistics, 99
early childhood trilingualism, 289
education, 83, 300
instructed L3 acquisition, 480
multilingual education, 83, 99
translation, 175–177, 289, 665, 666, 672
translation ambiguity experiments, 329
translation and priming studies, 182–185
translation equivalents (TEs), 282
translation priming, 178, 666
translation production task, 666
translation tasks, 359, 710
translators, 584, 585, 587, 591
transversion, 75
Traumatic Brain Injury, 635, 643
Travis, C. E., 416
Tree-Adjoining Grammar, 408
Treffers-Daller, J., 144, 390, 413
triggering hypothesis, 444
trilingual education, 475
Trilingual First Language Acquisition (TFLA), 272–290
triple cognates, 172, 173
Trujillo González, V. C., 685
Tsoukala, C., 418
Tsui, B. M., 106
Tukano, 423
Tuller, L., 650
Turkish
accent studies, 367
attrition studies, 386, 387
case study methods, 707
code-switching studies, 457
heritage speakers, 357, 392
metalinguistic awareness studies, 79
returnees, 390
transfer studies, 204, 235, 358, 366, 470
Tyler, M. D., 124
Typological Primacy Model (TPM)
activation and inhibition, 223
artificial languages, 728
case study methods, 709
complex and dynamic systems, 77
full transfer, 197, 203, 208, 225
generative approaches, 27, 30, 33–34, 36
heritage speakers, 358–360, 366, 369
instructed L3 acquisition, 470, 471, 472
mirror-image groups design, 674
multilingual advantage, 497
neurophysiological measures, 670
phonological studies, 125
property-by-property transfer, 220, 232
returnees, 392, 393
statistical modeling, 756, 757, 763, 765, 766
usage-based approaches, 55, 57
typological similarity
attrition, 328
case study methods, 703, 705, 706
code-switching, 413, 418, 421, 441, 452
corpus research, 686
early childhood trilingualism, 273
education, 299, 475, 478
heritage speakers, 357–360, 365–366, 369, 372
language impairment, 646, 648–649
mirror-image groups, 674
morphosyntactic transfer, 203, 208, 225, 232
multilingual advantage, 497
research methodologies, 663
vocabulary acquisition, 148–151
Tytus, A. E., 184, 667
Uniform Structure Principle, 411
unilingual contexts, 438
universal difficulty, 367
Universal Grammar (UG), 25, 26, 28, 50, 224, 358, 407, 420, 709
universities, multilingual, 303, 306
upregulation, 565
Urciuoli, B., 105
Urla, J., 107
US
education policies, 296
predominance of US English, 298
usage-based approaches, 43–58, 415, 418, 420
Vainikka, A., 219
Valdés Kroff, J. R., 405, 418, 445
Valueless Features hypothesis, 28
Van de Putte, E., 539, 587, 588, 591
van Hell, J. G., 172, 173, 522, 666
van Heuven, W. J. B., 169, 182, 672
Van Hout, R., 341
Vanhove, J., 184
variable relative clause attachment, 222
variation, 107, 415–416, 492–508, 683, 691, 698
Vaughan-Evans, A., 418, 446
Vaupés region, 423
ventrolateral PFC, 581
verbal fluency tasks, 616, 619
Veroude, K., 501
Videsott, G., 594
Vienna-Oxford International corpus of English (VOICE), 301
Vingerhoets, G., 529, 592, 616
visual moving window task, 474, 669
visual psychotypological measures, 132
visual word recognition, 169
visual world paradigm, 174, 247, 443, 520
visualizing the multilingual subject, 714–716
vocabulary. see lexicon
vocabulary acquisition research, 143–145
vocabulary depth, 144, 151
vocabulary knowledge, 145
voice onset time (VOT), 118, 126, 129, 280, 281, 322, 327, 365, 367, 371, 444
voxel-based morphometry (VBM), 524, 583, 585
Vrba, E. S., 44
Vygotsky, L., 48
Walsh, K., 638
Wardhaugh, R., 478
Wattendorf, E., 593
Weaker Links hypothesis, 635
Webb, S., 142
Weber, J. J., 300, 305
Webman Shafran, R., 256, 257
Wee, L., 103
Welsh, 416, 417, 418, 446
Wenxing, Y., 84
Wernicke’s area, 533, 592
Westergaard, M., 34, 56, 121, 125, 126, 197, 198, 204, 207, 219, 230, 232, 355, 360, 471, 663, 709
white matter, 524, 538, 543, 557, 562, 563, 564, 579, 580, 582, 586–588, 611
Widely Applicable Information Criterion (WAIC), 766
Wigglesworth, G., 275
Williams, J. N., 730
Williams, S., 55, 57, 149, 152, 686, 704, 705, 706
Wilson, D., 247
Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST), 612
within-groups design, 451
Woll, N., 154
women, 73
Wong Gonzales, W. D., 423
Woolard, K., 106
word association tests, 144
word construction attempts, 147
Word Grammar, 410
word knowledge, 145, 147
word naming, 616
word order, 206, 232, 234, 283, 360, 363, 445, 474, 670, 731
word priming, 177–178
word processing, 165–186, see also lexicon
word recognition tests, 224
word-learning tasks, 494
working memory
artificial languages, 735
cognitive aging, 609–610
cognitive consequences of bilingualism, 521
compensation, 617
functional brain changes, 591
pragmatics, 244, 248
simultaneous interpreters, 535
transfer, 469
World Englishes, 103, 298
Woumans, E., 558
Woydack, J., 102
Wrembel, M., 116, 117, 118, 122, 124, 126, 128, 129, 131, 132, 204, 209, 334
Wulff, S., 691, 692
X-Bar Theory, 408
Yang, H.-Y., 279
Yildiz, Y., 386, 387
Ying, S., 84
young adults, 12, 252, 503, 504, 521, 522, 529–535, 541, 610, 616
Young-Scholten, M., 219
Zahodne, L. B., 560, 568
Zajdler, E., 176, 181
Zhu, Y., 172, 174
Zimmer, M., 118

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