Index

Index

Note: An f following a page number indicates a figure; a t following a page number indicates a table.

Abrams, Kerry,201

Adams, Richard,263–265

adopted children, and family unification,228

Afghani refugees, admissions during Obama administration,191

African Americans

and Ethiopian immigrants,87–88, 96

and long-term effects of Civil Rights Act,11

and long-term effects of Voting Rights Act,11–12

and Somali refugees,106

West African views on,80–81

African immigrants

and Act of 1990,111

from Anglophone countries,63

commonalities among,112

distribution in U.S.,62–63

diversity of,112

and Diversity Visa Program,61–62, 63, 65, 90

educational attainment of,63, 81

Ethiopians,88, 89, 91, 95

Somalis,103

Sudanese,109, 110

West Africans,77

English language ability of,63, 109, 110

and family reunification,60–61, 90, 111–112

immigration data on,64–65

20th century,61, 64

source country/region of,64, 65

21st century,61–62, 64

source country/region of,65

pre-20th century,61

largest communities in U.S., 2012,62t2.1

and National Origins Quota System,3

naturalization figures for,111–112, 113t2.10

and negligible role of Act of 1965,63, 64, 111–112

overview of

1960–1969,64

1997,66t2.2

2000,67t2.3

2000–2009,65

2006,68t2.4

2012,69t2.5

percentage as professionals,63

and pre-1965 immigration policy,17–18

students,65–72

decision to remain in U.S.,71–72

disproportionate representation in Ivy League schools,72

racism toward,71 See also African refugees; Ghanaian immigrants; West African immigrants

African refugees

admissions,82–83

1994–2012,70t2.6

during Obama administration,191

reasons for becoming refugees,83

refugee status as method of entry,63, 65

resettlement of,83–86

city/community role in,114

continuous commitment to,115

and cultural orientation sessions,114

influence of country of origin on,84–86

issues in,112–115

and learning of English,114

location of settlement in U.S.,112–114

secondary migration patterns,84–86

states receiving most arrivals

1983–2004,84, 85t2.7

2000–2004,84, 85t2.8

2010–2012,84, 86t2.9 See also African immigrants; Ethiopian refugees; Somali refugees; Sudanese refugees

Alabama, immigration enforcement in,164

American Federation of Teachers,280

American Legion,133

American Legion Magazine,36

American Psychiatric Association (A.P.A.),262

Aneesh, A.,290

Arizona

African refugee resettlement, 2010–2012,84, 86t2.9

discriminatory immigration enforcement in,166

and immigration enforcement,164, 165

example of discriminatory,166

Mexican immigrants in, 1910–1990,325t10.7

SB 1070 (show your papers law),165

as Sudanese refugee secondary location,85

Armendariz, Albert,255–256

Arpaio, Joe,166

Ashanti ethnic group,63, 80

Asia, brain drain from,39

Asia Pacific Triangle provision

congressional remarks on,21

of National Origins Quota System,3, 19

overview of,24–26

Asian immigrants

and admissions ceilings of Refugee Act of 1980,82

and Chinese Exclusion Act,3, 12–13, 18, 19, 214–215, 237

Edward M. Kennedy on,21, 31

and Emergency Quota Act of 1921,202–203

and H-1 visas,275

and Immigration Act of 1924,203

and Immigration Act of 1965,111, 117, 118, 121–122, 123, 168–169

and National Origins Quota System,3, 215

naturalization figures for,113t2.10

overview of

1960–1969,64

1997,66t2.2

2000,67t2.3

2000–2009,65

2006,68t2.4

2012,69t2.5

and pre-1965 immigration policy,17–19

liberalizations of 1943,22–23See also Chinese immigrants; demographic shift as unintended consequence of Act of 1965; East Indian immigrants; Eastern Hemisphere ceiling; economic implications of Act of 1965; Filipino immigrants; Japanese immigrants; South Asia; transnational households; Vietnamese refugees

Asiatic Barred Zone,19, 202

assimilation

and Asian immigration,54–59

and West African immigration,79

Auster, Lawrence,42

Australia, Somali refugees in,100

Baltimore Evening Sun,41–42

Bantu,106

Belafonte, Harry,71

Bell, Griffin, 186–187

Bennett, Marion T.,34

Benton, William,24–25

Boehner, John,270

border enforcement.See Mexico-U.S. border enforcement, post-1965

Border Patrol,329, 333–334

Border Security, Economic Opportunity, and Immigration Modernization Act,228–229

Boston Herald,35–36

Boutilier, Clive Martin,260–261

Bouvier, Leon,42

Bracero Program,6–7, 296–297

and Act of 1952,298–299

breadth of,296, 299

consequences of not incorporating in Act of 1965,6–7, 292, 306–309

deportations after termination of,306

effect on pre-1965 immigration patterns,320

proposal to eliminate,297

role of Department of Labor in,297, 302

termination of,138–140, 299–302, 318

worker protections in,296–297

brain drain

from Africa,72

from Asia,39

Briggs, Vernon,13n. 20, 14

Brimelow, Peter,42

Brooks, Jack,27

Burke, David,52

Burmese refugees,191–192

Burton, Laurence,21

Bush, George H. W., and Immigration Act of 1990,268

Bush, George W., and guest worker program,289–290

Byrd, Robert,33

Calavita, Kitty,307

California

African refugee resettlement, 1983–2004,84, 85t2.7

African refugee resettlement, 2010–2012,84, 86t2.9

African-born foreign population in,62

Los Angeles, Eritreans in,112

as majority minority state,2, 13

Mexican immigrants in, 1910–1990,325t10.7

Nigerian immigrants in,112

as resettlement location for Ethiopian and Somali refugees,84

response to end of Bracero program,301–302

and same-sex marriage,248–249

and Secure Communities program,159–160

Sudanese refugees in,108

Cambodian refugees,192

parolees,184

permanent status granted to,185

settlement funding,185 See also Asian immigrants

Cameroon immigrants

as percentage of all Black African immigrants,63

students returning home/remaining in U.S.,71 See also African immigrants

Canada, same-sex marriage in,261

Canadian immigrants,126

Ford on per country ceiling on,142

increasing number of visas,141

and pre-1965 policy,18

Somali refugees in,100

undocumented,147

Caregiver Research Project (CARE Project),279, 281–282, 283–284

Caribbean refugees

admissions during Obama administration,191

numbers admitted after Act of 1980,191

visas, 1994 and 2013,65

Carter, Jimmy

on increasing immigrant visas for Canada and Mexico,141

parole authority and Cuban refugees under,189

and undocumented workers,306–307

Celler, Emanuel,58, 177, 178, 259

Central American immigrants,18, 151

Central Asia, refugee admissions during Obama administration,191. See also Asian immigrants

Chelf, Frank,32–33

Chicago Tribune,35–37

Chin, Jack,117, 199, 213–214

Chinese Exclusion Act (1882),3, 12–13, 18, 19, 214–215, 237

Chinese immigrants

and backlogs/wait lists,44–45, 49

benefits to U.S. economy of laborers, 1800s,236

and family reunification wait times,199

and family-based immigration program,224t5.15

immigrants, 2013,221t5.14

legislation against “coolie labor,”136

and liberalizations of 1943,22–23

and National Origins Quota System,3, 12–13

and non-quota visas under Refugee Relief Act,173

quota vs. number of actual entrants, 1953–1962,51 See also Asian immigrants; Chinese Exclusion Act (1882)

Chinese Repealer,22–23

Christian Science Monitor,35, 41–42

citizenship, U.S.

and African immigrants,111–112, 113t2.10

extended to persons of African descent,70

and Filipino immigrants,113t2.10

and Immigration Act of 1924,18–19

and Immigration Act of 1952,203–204

jus soli provisions of Fourteenth Amendment,321–322

MMAs and dual nationality,324t10.6

and Somali refugees,106–107

Civil Rights Act (1964),1–2, 4, 11, 199, 303

Clark, Joseph,21

Clinton, Bill/administration, and immigration reform,225–226. See also Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA)

Coast Guard, and border security,329

Cold War

refugee admissions after end of,191–192

refugee admissions during,179, 180, 191

Congolese in Rwanda, admissions during Obama administration,191–192

Conte, Silvio,55–56

Contract Labor Law (1885),237–238

contract worker programs, goals of,292–293. See also Mexican temporary guest worker programs; transnational households

Corman, James,53

Covington & Burling LLP,280

Cranston, Alan,268

Cuban parolees,183, 184

permanent status for,185

settlement funding for,185

Cuban refugees,83, 174

and Act of 1965,171–172, 182–183, 189, 191

admissions during Obama administration,191–192

numbers admitted after Act of 1980,191

Cuban/Cuban-American population, interest in foreign policy,331

Dadaab, UNHCR refugee camp in,105

Daniels, Dominick,21

Daniels, Roger,15, 41–42

de la Garza, Rodolfo,327–328, 331

Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA; 1996–2013),248–249, 269–270

and federal definition of marriage,269

and recognition of same-sex marriage by states,269

DeHaan, Dale,27, 53

demographic shift as unintended consequence of Act of 1965,4, 20–26

and Asian immigration

contemporary recollections on increase in,26–29

Dean Rusk on,47

Emanuel Celler on,47, 48

factors in no prediction of no Asian influx,41–59

assimilation assumption,54–59

backlogs and wait lists,44–45

knowledgeable participants on,46–51

per country annual limitation,45–46

sincerity of congressional anti-racism,51–54

structural protections,45–46

Western Hemisphere ceiling,46

families and professionals as new immigrants,36–40

Asian family reunification,37–38, 47

Asian professionals,38–40

increase in numbers of immigrants,239

legislative history of,29–34

remarks from opponents of,32–34

remarks from supporters of,29–32

media reports on,34–36

Christian Science Monitor,35

Los Angeles Times, 35–36

Scientific American,35

U.S. News & World Report,34–35

Mike Masaoka on,47, 48, 49

Robert Kennedy on,41–44

conventional view on,13–16

Department of Agriculture, and agricultural worker programs,302

Department of Defense (DOD), and border security,329

Department of Homeland Security (DHS)

border policy of,329

and deportation of aliens,158

and detained non-citizens,228

Office of Immigration Statistics of,207, 214

Department of Justice (DOJ)

and border security,329

and deportation of aliens,158

and homosexual immigrants,262

Department of Labor (DOL)

and Bracero Program,297, 302

certification,305, 308–310

restrictive application of H-2 program,307, 308

deportations

effect of Great Depression on Mexican ancestry persons,128–129

of Europeans vs. Mexicans, 1940s–1950s,293

increase after end of Bracero Program,306

and pre-1965 Mexican immigration,128–129, 169

and Secure Communities program,160–161

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-1),251, 252

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-II),262–267

Diaz, Porfirio,317

District of Columbia, as majority minority state,2, 13

Diversity Visa Program

and African immigration,63, 65, 73, 90–91

data for 2013,212

establishment of,61–62

obstacles to,61–62

Dominican Republic immigrants, 2013,221t5.14

Douglas, Paul,30

Drug Enforcement Administration,329

DSM-1 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders),251, 252

DSM-II (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders),262–267

East Africa, African students airlifted to U.S. from,70–71. See also African immigrants

East Asian refugees

admissions during Obama administration,191

visas, 1994 and 2013,65 See also Asian immigrants

East Indian immigrants

and family unification

visa applications,224t5.15

visas for siblings of U.S. citizens,224

wait times,199

immigrants, 2013,221t5.14

and National Origin Quota System,3

naturalization figures for,113t2.10

overview of

1997,66t2.2

2000,67t2.3

2006,68t2.4

2012,69t2.5

and pre-1965 immigration policy,18–19

wait times, increasing,143–144See also Asian immigrants

Eastern European immigrants

and backlogs/wait lists,44

and Emergency Quota Act of 1921,202–203

and Immigration Act of 1924,203

and National Origins Quota Act,215 See also European immigrants

Eastern European refugees

number admitted after Act of 1980,191

visas, 1994 and 2013,65

Eastern Hemisphere ceiling

effect on immediate relatives of citizens,20

family connection preference category of,20

limits on numbers of visas granted,20, 205, 319 See also Asian immigrants

economic implications of Act of 1965

and aging labor force,348

as different for Mexicans and Asians,349–350

earnings,358–360

average wage of Asian- vs. Mexican-born, 1960–2010,359f11.7

effect of increase in college-educated Asians,359f11.6

effect of schooling level of Mexicans,358

effects of family vs. employment sponsorship,364–366

employment sponsor, 364–365

and bias of visa programs in favor of college-educated persons,366

family sponsor,364–365

and evolution of Mexican and Asian immigrant populations,351–354

differences in characteristics,353–354

reasons for slowing of immigration,352

schooling levels of immigrants,353–354

surge in Asian immigration,351–352

surge in Mexican immigration,351

importance of skills and schooling,348, 350, 355–357

educational compositions of Mexicans and Asians,357

effect of technology on,355, 356

and evolution of yearly wages, 1960–2010,356

and schooling opportunities,355

overview of,7, 348–349

reform proposals,350, 367–368

need for more scientists, engineers, and innovators,368

simplification of permit system,367–368

temporary work visas responding to demand for labor,368

selection of immigrants,360–364

Asian-born,362f11.8

Mexican-born,363f11.9 See also employment-based immigration

Economist, The,41–42

Edwards, Don,27, 52

Egypt

as source country, pre-1990,65

Sudanese refugees in,107

Egyptian immigrants

1960–1969,64

students,71 See also African immigrants

Ehrlich, Thomas,28–29, 53

Eisenhower, Dwight D.,174, 176

Ellsworth, Perry,308

Emergency Quota Act of 1921,201–203

national origins quota in,202

employment-based immigration

in 2013,211, 212

and African immigrants,60–61

effect of Act of 1965 on

and H visas(see H visas)

and labor certification amendments,136–138

overview of,6–7

professionals in arts/sciences visas,205–206

skilled/unskilled laborer visas,206 See also Bracero Program; Filipino temporary/guest workers; Mexican temporary guest worker programs

England, and pre-1965 immigration policy,18

English, as major language of West African immigrants,75

equal protection, under Fifth Amendment,270

Equal Protection Clause,264

Eritrean refugees,63, 92, 112, 70t2.6

Ervin, Sam,32

Eskridge, William, Jr.,252–253

Ethiopia

as source country, pre-1990,65

Sudanese refugees in,107, 108

Ethiopian Orthodox Church,92

Ethiopian refugees,86–98

educational attainment of immigrants,88, 89, 91, 95

first-wave royalists,87–88

integration into U.S. society,95–96

students,87

first waves to Los Angeles,91–92

integration into U.S. society,94–98

cultural barriers to,94–95

and racism,95, 96–97

of second-generation,96–98

in “Little Ethiopia,”88, 89

migrant identity of,92–94

cultural,63, 92–93

economic,94

political,93–94, 97

racial,93

transnational,92–93, 96, 97–98

and naturalization,112, 113t2.10

overview of

1994–2012,70t2.6

1997,66t2.2

2000,67t2.3

2006,68t2.4

2012,82, 69t2.5

and Refugee Act of 1980,89

refugee status as entry,82

resettlement states,84

second-wave revolutionaries,88–89

and Refugee Act of 1980,89

students,70, 87

in taxi business in Washington, D.C.,63

third-wave diversity visa winners,90–91

challenges to taking advantage and getting to U.S.,90–91

economic reasons for migration,90

family reunification as reason for migration,90

views on African Americans,87–88, 96 See also African immigrants

European immigrants

admissions during Obama administration,191

overview of

1820–1919,215t5.7

1960–1969,64

2000–2009,65

2010–2013,218t5.10 See also Eastern European immigrants

Fafunwa, Aliyu Olumide,71

Fair Share Refugee Act (1960),174–175

family, immediate.See immediate family/relatives

family preferences and immigration before Act of 1965,201–204

Emergency Quota Act (1921),201–203

and Immigration Act of 1924,203

and Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952,203–204

family unification, effect of Act of 1965 on,207–220

adjusted status category,209–210, 212t5.5, 222

and backlogs,199, 222, 223–225

congressional efforts to limit to nuclear family,200

and creation of transnational families,6

data for 2013,213t5.6

and immediate relatives

lack of cap on visas for,222

numbers admitted, 2003–2013,209t5.3

numbers admitted, 2013,213t5.6

new arrival category,208–209, 211t5.4, 222

as not meaningfully realized,5–6

numbers admitted, 2013,213t5.6

ongoing family separation,200, 221–225

backlogs,222, 223–225

married sons and daughters of U.S. citizens,224–225

siblings of U.S. citizens,224

cut-off dates,222, 223

for Mexico,223

for Philippines,223

sponsoring family members,221–222

overview of family-based program,5–6, 201–207

percentage of total immigration, 2003–2013,208t5.2

reform proposals,225–231

congressional proposals,226–229

consequences of reducing/eliminating certain categories,229–231

and parent/grandparent caregivers,230–231

and sexual orientation,6

types of family relationships covered by,199–200

visa application numbers,224t5.15

wait times,144, 197–198, 199 See also family-based immigration system of Act of 1965; racial diversity, effect of Act of 1965 on; transnational households

family-based immigration system of Act of 1965,205–207

family-sponsored relatives, defining,205

immediate relatives, defining,205

preference categories, current,205–206, 206

Farbstein, Leonard,21

Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)

and border security,329

and information sharing with DHS,329

Feighan, Michael,29, 43, 45, 54–55, 176–177

Feldman, Myer,27, 53

Fifth Amendment,270

Filipino immigrants

and family unification

backlogs,224, 225

visa applications,224t5.15

wait times,199, 241

immigrants, 2013,221t5.14

and National Origins Quota System,3

naturalization figures for,113t2.10

overview of

1997,66t2.2

2000,67t2.3

2006,68t2.4

2012,69t2.5

professionals,240

wait times, increasing,143–144See also Filipino temporary/guest workers; transnational households

Filipino temporary/guest workers

conclusions of study on,290–291

data sources for study on,279

and debt bondage,284–289, 290–291

H-1B visa holders,285–286

teachers recruited to work in Louisiana,285

teachers recruited to work in PGCPS,285–286

H-2B visa holders,286–288

welder,286–288

multiple-entry visitor’s visa holder,288–289

at Grand Isle Shipyards (GIS), Inc.,273–274

class action suit against after explosion,273, 274

contractual obligations of migrant workers,273

exploitive working conditions,274

and illegal aspects of legal migration,280–284

C-1B (seaman transit) visa,282–283

H-1B visa holders,280

health care workers,280

teachers,280

H-2B visa holders,280–282

hotel housekeepers (Florida 15),282

welder,281–282

persons with non-employment visas,282–283

and B-1 (business) visa,283

and J-1 Visa Exchange Visitor Program,282–283

role of Philippines as labor broker to,277, 283, 290, 291

and transnational set of employment agents,273–274, 276–277, 278

Financial World,41–42

Findley, Paul,54

Fisher, O.C.,32, 46

Fleuti, George,257–258

Flores-Rodriguez, Roberto,254–255

Florida, African refugee resettlement, 1983–2004,84, 85t2.7

Fong, Hiram,32, 37, 45

Food and Agriculture Act (1965),302

Ford, Gerald R.,26, 53, 141, 142

foreign policy

immigrant views on,327–328

Latino views on,327–328, 331

theories of political influence on,330–332

hypotheses,331–332

organizational strength,330–331

personal attributes of immigrants,330

political context of immigrants,330–331

preferences and level of political activity,331

size and geographic concentration,331

theoretical frames,330–331

Foreign Trade Zone (FTZ), inland,339

Fortune,41

Fourteenth Amendment,321–322

Frame, Rosalind,30

French, as major language of West African immigrants,75

FTZ (Foreign Trade Zone), inland,339

gender differences

and Emergency Quota Act of 1921,201–203

and Immigration Act of 1924,203

and Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952,204

Georgia

and immigration enforcement,164

Nigerian immigrants in,112

as resettlement location for Ethiopian and Somalian refugees,84

as Sudanese refugee secondary location,85

Germany

end of guest worker program in,320

and pre-1965 immigration policy,18

Ghana, racism and discrimination in,80

Ghanaian immigrants,63, 72–74

Ashanti ethnic group,63, 80

challenges to,74

in Chicago,73

in Cincinnati,73–74

and diversity visa program,73, 90

naturalization figures for,113t2.10

overview of

1997,66t2.2

2000,67t2.3

2006,68t2.4

2012,69t2.5

obstacles to family reunification,73

as percentage of all Black African immigrants,63

as speakers of English,73 See also African immigrants

Giaimo, Robert,45

Gingrey, Phil,226, 227

Glazer, Nathan,41–42, 327

Graham, Hugh Davis,14

Graham, Otis,42

Grand Isle Shipyards (GIS), Inc.,273–274

Great Britain, Somali refugees in,100

Great Depression, deportations of Mexican ancestry persons during,128–129

Greece, and wait lists,44

green card.See lawful permanent resident (LPR) status

Grogger, Jeffrey,360–361

H visas

H-1 visas (professional workers),7, 275

H-1A visas,366

H-1B visas,246–247, 366

and debt bondage,237–238, 285–286

and illegal aspects of legal migration,280

overview of,275

and permanent resident status,7, 276, 281

H-2 visas (lesser skilled workers)

H-2A visas (agricultural workers),366

and Mexican worker migration,310

H-2B visas (nonagricultural workers),275

and debt bondage,286–288

and illegal aspects of legal migration,280–282

overview of,275

overview of,275–276 See also employment-based immigration

Habasha identity,98

Haiti, migrants from,151

Hanson, Gordon H.,360–361

Hart, Philip,34, 51, 132, 182–183, 259, 301

Hart-Celler Act.See Immigration and Nationality Act Amendments of 1965

Hawaii

as majority minority state,2, 13

same-sex marriage in,269

head tax requirement,294, 317

Henderson, Timothy,304

Hill, Carl,265–266

Hing, Bill Ong,14, 41–42, 117

Holder, Eric, Jr.,270

Holland, Spessard,33

Hollingsworth v. Perry (2013),248–249, 270

Hooker, Evelyn,262

H.R. 477 (Nuclear Family Priority Act),226–227

limit program to spouses/children of lawful permanent residents,227

redefinition of “immediate relatives” in,226–227

and reduction in worldwide level of family preferences,227

H.R. 1915 (“Immigration in the National Interest Act”),226

H.R. 2580,178

H.R. 8662,178–180

Hungarian refugees,173, 174, 178

Huntington, Samuel,327

IHSS (in-home support services),236

Illinois

Mexican immigrants in, 1910–1990,325t10.7

Nigerian immigrants in,112

immediate family/relatives

Act of 1965 definition of,238

congressional definition of,241–242

cultural definitions of,230

redefinition in Nuclear Family Priority Act,226–227

Immigration Act of 1917,202, 250–251, 295

Immigration Act of 1924,17, 18–19

and African immigrants,70

and family-based immigration,203

and gender differences,203

overview of,17, 203

and racial differences,203

and U.S. citizenship,18–19

Immigration Act of 1990

and African immigration,111

and establishment of Diversity Visa Program,61–62

and family unification,268

and preference categories in,241

and sexual preference,250

and transnational households,241 See also Diversity Visa Program

Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE)

and border security,329

on trafficking Filipino workers,282–283

Immigration and Nationality Act Amendments of 1965

attempts to undo quotas,176–177

civil rights inspiration for,130, 131

compared with Civil Rights Act of 1964,21

compared with Voting Rights Act of 1965,21

disparate racial impacts of,123–125

Edward Kennedy on,259, 303

effect of relative lack of Latina/o political power on,135–136

and elimination of national origins quotas system,1, 129–130, 168–169

goals of,125, 154, 199

immigration law before,16–19

implementation of visa preference system established by,239–242

Johnson signs into law,1, 11, 116–117, 171, 259

overview of,1–2, 3–4, 19–20, 258–259, 319

demographic revolution precipitated by,1–2

and discriminatory barriers for African immigrants,5

effect on status of refugees,5

employment skills as preference category of,20, 60

family connections as preference category of,20, 60

per country annual limitation,45–46

political effects of,7–8

preferences under

first (adult unmarried sons/daughters of citizens),238, 241

second (spouses/unmarried children of permanent resident aliens),238, 241

third (professionals with exceptional ability in arts/sciences),238

fourth (married children of citizens),238, 241

fifth (siblings of adult citizens),238, 241

sixth (workers satisfying U.S. labor shortages),238

seventh (displaced persons fleeing Communist or Middle Eastern country/uprooted by national disaster),239

as race neutral,20

restrictionists on,130, 133 See also demographic shift as unintended consequence of Act of 1965; Eastern Hemisphere ceiling; economic implications of Act of 1965; family unification, effect of Act of 1965 on; racial diversity, effect of Act of 1965 on; Western Hemisphere ceiling

Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952

and Asian immigration,23–26, 42, 43, 48

failure to maintain immigrant stream reflecting racial make-up of U.S.,50–51

and family unification,204

and interracial marriage,203–204

naturalization restrictions under,203–204

overview of,17–18, 203–204

Immigration and Nationality Amendments of 1976,125

immigration holds,159

Immigration Nursing Relief Act (IRNA; 1989),242

Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA; 1986),151–153

Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigration Responsibility Act (IIRAIRA) 1996,329

immigration regulation as federal power,164–165

Indian immigrants.See East Indian immigrants

Indochina Migration and Refugee Assistance Act (1975),185

Indochinese refugees,184

numbers admitted after Act of 1980,191

parole authority hearing on,186

permanent status for,185

settlement funding for,185

in-home support services (IHSS),236

interracial marriage,203–204

Iranian refugees, admissions during Obama administration,191–192

Iraqi refugees, admissions during Obama administration,191

IRCA (Immigration Reform and Control Act; 1986),151–153

Ireland, and pre-1965 immigration policy,18

IRNA (Immigration Nursing Relief Act; 1989),242

Islamic traditions/law, and Somali refugees,103

Italy, and backlogs/wait lists,44

J-1 Visa Exchange Visitor Program,282–283

Japanese immigrants

and National Origin Quota System,3

and pre-1965 immigration policy,18–19

quota vs. number of actual entrants, 1953–1962,51

and wait times,49 See also Asian immigrants

Javits, Jacob,132

Jewish Vocational Service,102, 103

Jim Crow,12, 16, 117

Johnson, Lyndon B./administration

on assimilation,57

civil rights bills under,11

erroneous idea on effects of Immigration Act of 1965,1

on immigration,54

on immigration reform as part of Democratic platform,177

and labor certification amendments,137

on natural origin restrictions,176

and pro-civil rights aspects of immigration reform under,118, 130

signing of Immigration Act of 1965 by,1, 11, 116–117, 171, 259

Jordan, Barbara,225–226

Jordan Commission,225–226, 227, 228

jus soli provisions, of Fourteenth Amendment,321–322

Kakuma Refugee Camp, Kenya,109

Kansas, African refugees in,108, 112

Kansas City, Missouri, Somali community in,102, 103

Kastenmeier, Robert,27, 52

Katzenbach, Nicholas deBelleville,28, 31, 53

Kennedy, Edward M. (Ted)

on Asian immigrants,21, 31

on assimilation,57–58

on immigrants,56

on Immigration Act of 1965,259, 303

on individual worth,56

on quota system,20–21, 49–50

on Refugee Act of 1980,189

on “the new immigration,”29

Kennedy, John F.

criticism of quota systems,117–118

on immigration,54

on immigration reform,16

on natural origin restrictions,176

and pluralistic society,35

proposal to phase-out quota system,37

support for African students by,71

on treatment of Mexican/Puerto Rican immigrants,134

Kennedy, Robert F.

on effect of immigration on ethnic makeup of U.S.,49

and family reunification,37–38

on immigration,59

and immigration reform,16

on individual worth,56

prediction of no Asian influx after 1965 Act,41–44

on Western Hemisphere ceiling,132

Kenya

African students from,70, 71

Sudanese refugees in,107

Kenyan immigrants

as percentage of all Black African immigrants,63

students returning home/remaining in U.S.,71 See also African immigrants

King, Martin Luther,71

Kiser, George C.,295–296

Krebs, Paul,21

L visa,366

Labady, Manuel,262–263

labor certification,136–138, 305, 308–310

Laotian refugees, permanent status granted to,185 See also Asian immigrants

Latin America

and Act of 1965,118–119, 121–122, 123

fears of mass migration from,148–149

number of refugees admitted after Act of 1980,191

refugee admissions during Obama administration,191

refugee visas, 1994 and 2013,65 See also Latina/os; Mexico

Latina/os

animosity toward, in social life in U.S.,134–135, 164, 169

effect of relative lack of political power on Act of 1965,135–136

foreign policy views of,327–328, 331

growing political power of,136 See also Mexican immigrants; Mexico

Lautenberg Amendment,191–192

lawful permanent resident (LPR) status

and family reunification,198, 209–213

and National Origins Quota System,2

Lawrence v. Texas,261

Lee, Erika,14

Levi, Edward,186

Liberian immigrants

as percentage of all Black African immigrants,63

post-1990,65

refugee admissions, 1994–2012,70t2.6

refugee secondary migration patterns, 85–86

in Rhode Island,112

students,70

in Tennessee,112 See also African immigrants

Lindsay, John,38

literacy

African adult rates of,62

as immigration requirement,70, 103, 294, 317

Los Angeles, Eritreans in,112

Los Angeles Times, 35–37, 41–42

“lost boys” of Sudan,108, 109

lottery program,60. See also Diversity Visa Program

Loving v. Virginia (1967),264–265, 269

LPR, andsee lawful permanent resident (LPR) status

Luibheid, Eithne,13–14

majority minority states,2, 13

marriage

and DOMA,269

federal definition of,269

interracial,203–204

same-sex in California,248–249

same-sex in Canada,261

same-sex in Hawaii,269

Maryland

African-born foreign population in,62

as Liberian refugee secondary migration location,85

Nigerian immigrants in,112

Massachusetts, Sudanese refugees in,108

Massey, Douglas,306

Mathias, Charles,27

Mboya, Thomas,71

McCarren, Pat,25–26, 253. See also Immigration and Nationality Act Amendments of 1965; Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952

McClellan, John,33

media, negative African stereotypes in,79, 98

Merida Initiative,329

Mexican immigrant labor, history of,294–299

and Act of 1917,294–295

as basis for H-2 program,295

and waivers for agricultural workers,294–295

and Act of 1952,298–299

employers of undocumented workers,299

and H-2 visa provision,298

whether INS or DOL should regularize,298–299

Bracero program,296–297, 317–319 (see also Bracero program)

early concessions to agriculture/labor contractor,294–296

Mexican immigrants

and Amendments of 1976,140–149

and Bracero Program(see Bracero Program)

Carter on increasing number of visas to,141

and family-based immigration programs

backlogs and family separation

for married sons and daughters of U.S. citizens,225

for siblings of U.S. citizens,224

cut-off dates,223

number of applications,224t5.15

fears of mass migration of,148–149, 169

Ford on per country ceiling on numbers of,141, 142

geographical areas of settlement,126

impact of Act of 1965 on,126–140, 154, 318–321

end of Bracero program,138–140

increase in removals of Latina/os,120

increase in undocumented population,122, 139–140

and labor certification amendments,136–138

racial diversity effects,217–220

replacement of circular migration,319–320, 321

and National Origin Quota System,3

overview of

1960–1969,64

1960–1980,155t3.1

1997,66t2.2

2000,67t2.3

2000–2009,65

2006,68t2.4

2012,111, 69t2.5

patterns of immigration, prior to Act of 1965,317–319

during early 20th century,317

effect of Great Depression on,317–318, 320

and end of Bracero program,318

by generation, 1900–1950,319t10.2

and Treaty of Guadalupe,317

World War II through 1950s,318

and pre-1965 immigration policy,18

reasons to immigrate to U.S.

employment opportunities,127

family members/social networks in U.S.,126–127

undocumented workers,149–154, 169

growth of numbers of,151–152, 153

limited effectiveness of amnesty programs,151–153

limits of border enforcement,153–154

negative social construction of “illegal alien,”169

and Western Hemisphere ceiling,126, 129–136

legislative history of,131–132, 133–134, 135

and relative lack of Latina/o political power on passage of,135–136

and Western Hemisphere county ceilings extensions, 1976,140–149

backlogs/waiting periods,143–144, 146, 169

disparate impacts of uniform limits,147–149

effect of more realistic restriction,146

effects of differential demand for immigration,145–147

and increase in undocumented immigration,142–143, 144–145

Mexican-American community reaction to,142

role in suppression of legal Latina/o immigration,143–145See also economic implications of Act of 1965; Mexican immigrant labor, history of; Mexican temporary guest worker programs

Mexican temporary guest worker programs

conclusions,311–312

and consequences of end of Bracero Program,292, 306–309

current situation and labor-employer compromises for future,309–311

temporary H-2 program,309–310

USDA involvement,310

W visa, 310–311

debates over Mexican labor and proposed Act of 1965,299–306

H-2A visas held by workers,310

H-2B visas held by workers,310

impact of Act of 1965 on,303–306

and AFL-CIO,304

and DOL certification,305, 308–310

and DOL restrictive application of H-2 program,307, 308

and House report on foreign agricultural workers,304

and Senate report on foreign agricultural workers,305

and Western Hemisphere quota,303–304, 305–306See also Mexican immigrant labor, history of

Mexican/Mexican American (MMA) population, implications of Act of 1965 on

and 1976 amendments,320

and border security policies,328–330

287 (g) program,329

Merida Initiative,329

National Strategies of Border Patrol,329

Secure Border Initiative,329

Secure Communities Program,158–162, 329

Secure Fence Act,329

Southwest Border Security Initiative,329

conclusions,342

demographics,342

age of MMAs/second-generation population, 1960–2010,345–346

demographics, 1960–2010,344t. 10A.2.

increase in percentage of U.S. population, 1960–2010,344t. 10A.1.

rate of population growth across states, 1960–2010,346

distribution of MMA population by county,347t. 10B.1.

expansion of legal resident aliens,321t10.3

growth in MMA population,316t10.1

and Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986,320–321

political empowerment determinants,316

enfranchisement,321–326, 326t10.8

geographic concentration,325t10.7

and IRCA of 1986,323t10.5

naturalization,322t10.4, 324t10.6

qualitative analysis of political influence on border security,338–342

border community in Texas,338–340

county outcomes,340

county political characteristics,339–340

county preferences,339

non-border community in Texas,340–342

county outcomes,341–342

county political characteristics,341

county preferences,340–341

quantitative analysis of political influence on border security,332–338

barriers to political participation,333

capacity to act on preferences,333

distinct and salient preferences,333

SES variables,333

measures of dependent variables,334–335

early adherence to Secure Communities program,335

number of Border Patrol agents deployed,334

number or Latino elected officials in each county,335

participation in 287 (g) border enforcement program,334–335

size of Border Patrol budget per border sector per year,334

measures of independent variables,335

demographics,335

SES,335

overlapping city/county as unit of analysis,332–333

preliminary analyses,335–336

preliminary results,336–338

salience as constant in,333–334

and Western Hemisphere cap,315–316

Mexico

aid from U.S. to facilitate border security,329

per capita income compared with U.S., 2010,351

and Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848),126, 317 See also economic implications of Act of 1965; Mexican immigrant labor, history of; Mexican immigrants; Mexican temporary guest worker programs; Mexico-U.S. border enforcement, post-1965

Mexico-U.S. border enforcement, post-1965,121, 125, 155–168, 169–170

claims of being color-blind,156

as criminal removal system,157–158

effect of terrorist attacks on U.S. on,157

expanded use of criminal justice system in,157–162

increase in removals of Latina/o,166–168

disparate removal outcomes,167–168

as priority for Executive Branch,158

and racial profiling,162–166

federal,162–163

state and local,162, 163–166

restrictionist view on,156

and Secure Communities program,158–162, 329

deportations for low-level offenses,160–161

racially disparate impacts,161

Supreme Court on removals,161

and state and local criminal law enforcement agencies,159–160, 165

Mexico-U.S. border enforcement, pre-1965,127–129

deportations,128–129, 169

“public charge exclusion,”128

Migrante International,278

Migrante Northern California,286

Migration and Refugee Assistance Act (1962),175–176

Miller, George,32

Mills, Nicolaus,41–42

Minnesota, African refugees in

resettlement,84

1983–2004,84, 85t2.7

2000–2004,84, 85t2.8

and secondary migration, 85–86

minorities

and long-term effects of Civil Rights Act,11

and long-term effects of Voting Rights Act,11–12

Missouri, Somali community in,102, 103

MMA.See Mexican/Mexican American (MMA) population, implications of Act of 1965 on

Mohar, Gustavo,323

Monroe Doctrine,3

Moore, Arch, Jr.,27, 32, 39, 46, 52–53, 56

Moroccan immigrants, 1960–1969,64. See also African immigrants

Moynihan, Daniel P.,327

NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement),148, 339

A Nation of Immigrants (Kennedy),16

National Alliance for Filipino Concerns (NAFCON),274, 279, 280, 285

National Council of Farmers Cooperatives (NCFC),300

National Guard, and border security,329

National Origins Quota System

abolished through Act of 1965,1–2, 132, 259

and African immigration,3

Asia Pacific Triangle provision of,3, 19

and Asian immigrants,3, 215

and China,3, 12–13

and Eastern Europe,215

ending of as goal of Act of 1965,1

and Filipino immigration,3

and lawful permanent resident status,2

overview of,2–3, 12–13

phasing out of,49–50

and South Korea,3

and Southern European immigrants,215

National Strategies of Border Patrol,329

naturalization.See citizenship, U.S.

NCFC (National Council of Farmers Cooperatives),300

Near Eastern refugees,65, 191

Nebraska, and immigration enforcement,164

Neuberger, Maurine,38

“new immigration,”29

New Jersey

as Liberian refugee secondary migration location,85

Nigerian immigrants in,112

New Mexico

as majority minority state,2, 13

Mexican immigrants in, 1910–1990,325t10.7

New York

African refugee resettlement, 2000–2004,84, 85t2.8

African refugee resettlement, 2010–2012,84, 86t2.9

African-born foreign population in,62

Nigerian immigrants in,112

as refugee secondary location,85

as refugee secondary migration location,85

New York Times,35–36

Ngai, Mae,14, 132–133, 293

Nigeria

ethnic identity in,75

as source country, pre-1990,65

Nigerian immigrants

distribution in U.S.,112

and diversity visa program,90

and naturalization,112, 113t2.10

overview of

1997,66t2.2

2000,67t2.3

2006,68t2.4

2012,69t2.5

as percentage of all Black African immigrants,63

religious traditions of,63

students,71

students returning home/remaining in U.S.,71, 76

views on African Americans,80–81See also African immigrants

non-employment visas,282–283

and B-1 (business) visa,283

and J-1 Visa Exchange Visitor Program,282–283

non-Hispanic white, 2012 population statistics,13

non-quota visas,24

and Act of 1952,204

and Asian immigration,51

and Chinese refugees,173

growth before Act of 1965,176

for orphans adopted by servicemen/federal workers,173

refugees from Azores and Indonesia,174

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA),148, 339

Nuclear Family Priority Act,226–227

Obama, Barack/administration

and Defense of Marriage Act,270

and immigration reform,289

and refugee admissions, 2014,191–192

and removals of noncitizens,161, 166–167, 170 (see also Secure Communities program)

Office of Immigration Statistics (OIS),207, 214

Office of Refugee Resettlement (ORR),84

Ohio

African refugee resettlement in, 2010–2012,84, 86t2.9

African refugee secondary migration to,73–74, 84, 85–86

OIS (Office of Immigration Statistics),207, 214

Operation Blockade (El Paso),329

Operation Gatekeeper (San Diego),329

Operation Wetback,128, 299

ORR (Office of Refugee Resettlement),84

overlooked second generation.See transnational households

Pachon, Harry,327–328, 331

Page Act (1875),202

parole authority of Attorney General

under Act of 1965,174, 176, 178, 179–180

in final version of Act of 1965,182–183

policy before Act of 1965,174

parolees

Cambodian,184

Cuban,183, 184

Indochinese,184

“stigma of parole,”180, 183, 185

Vietnamese,184

Parreñas, Rhacel,233

Paul, Anju,289

Peck, Jamie,276

Pennsylvania

and immigration enforcement,164

as Liberian refugee secondary migration location,85

Perry, Rick,341

Philippines

as labor broker,277, 283

lack of opportunity in,243

number of immigrants from,242

and remittances,277, 290

as supplier of temporary workers to U.S.,277 See also Asian immigrants; Filipino immigrants; Filipino temporary/guest workers; transnational households

pluralistic society,35

Poff, Richard,50

Poitier, Sidney,71

Program for Mexican Communities Living Abroad (PCME),323

Puerto Rican immigrants,134

Quiroz, Sara Harb,255–257

racial diversity, effect of Act of 1965 on,200, 213–220

Asian immigrants

1820–1919,214–215, 216t5.8

1970–2009,216–217

Asian vs. European immigrants, 2010–2013,218t5.10

European immigrants

1820–1919,215t5.7

1970–2009,216–217

Mexican immigrants,217–220

1820–1919,219t5.11

1920–1959,218

1960–2009,218

2013,221t5.14 See also family unification, effect of Act of 1965 on

racial profiling,161, 162–166

federal,162–163

financial costs of,162–163

human costs of,163

Supreme Court on,163

state and local,162, 163–166

example of,166

laws requiring officers to assist federal government,165

Proposition 187, CA,164

SB 1070 (AZ),165

Reform Immigration for Texas Alliance (RITA) law enforcement summit,340, 341

Refugee Act of 1980

admissions ceilings,82

and African immigrants,65, 82

overview of,187–189

Refugee Convention of 1951 (U.N.),175

refugees

African(see African refugees)

Caribbean, 1994 and 2013,65

from Communist countries,5, 179, 180, 181, 183, 184, 185, 191, 239

and conditional entry,181

Cuban,171–172, 182–183, 189, 191

Cuban parolees,183, 184

data for 2013,212

definition of refugee,190–191

discretion and control after Act of 1965,183–189

East Asian, 1994 and 2013,65

Haitian,189–190

humanitarian issues,193

Indochinese parolees,184

Middle Eastern,5, 183, 239

national origin discrimination after Act of 1965,5, 189–193

national origins distinctions,189–190, 192

parole authority,183–188

policy before 1965 Act,172–176

Fair Share Refugee Act,174–175, 178

first non-quota legislation, 1953,173

Migration and Refugee Assistance Act,175–176

parole authority,174

Refugee Relief Act,173

policy in Act of 1965,171–172, 176–183

administrative proposals,177–178

congressional proposals,178–181

parole authority,176, 178, 179–180

parole provision in final version,182–183

persecution provision in final version,181–182

political concerns,191–192

and Refugee Act of 1980,187–189

resettlement funding,185

Soviet Union parolees,184, 185

uprooted by natural calamity/military operations,5, 177, 179, 180, 181, 239

Reimers, David,15, 41–42, 43–44

relatives, immediate.See immediate family/relatives

remittances

by Ethiopian immigrants,94

by Filipino immigrants,277, 290

by Somali immigrants,107

Rhode Island, Liberian immigrants in,85, 112

Rhodesia, students returning home/remaining in U.S.,71

Richmond, Julius,262

RITA (Reform Immigration for Texas Alliance) law enforcement summit,340, 341

Robinson, Jackie,71

Rodino, Peter, Jr.,26–27, 52, 57, 137

Rodriguez, Robyn,277

“roots tourism,”97

Rubenzer, Trevor,330

Rusk, Dean,21–22, 43

Rwandan refugees, admissions during Obama administration,191–192. See also African immigrants

S. 744,226

S. 744 (Border Security, Economic Opportunity, and Immigration Modernization Act),228–229

and abolishment of siblings of U.S. citizens category,229

and married sons/daughters of U.S. citizen who are over 31 years old category,229

provisions for stepchildren/adopted children,228

and removal of noncitizens,228–229

Saltonstall, Leverett,37, 44–45, 57

same-sex marriage

in California,248–249

in Canada,261

in Colorado,263–265

in Hawaii,269

San Francisco Chronicle,41–42

sanctuary cities,340, 341

Sassen, Saskia,237

SB 1070 (AZ; “show your papers” law),165

Schlei, Norbert A.,28, 53

Schuck, Peter,41–42

Schwartz, Abba,28–29, 53

Scientific American,35

Scruggs, Otey,296–297

secondary migration patterns, of African refugees,84–86

Secure Border Initiative (2005),329

Secure Communities Program,158–162, 329

Secure Fence Act (2006),329

Selassie, Haile,87

Select Commission on Immigration and Refugee Policy,133–134

Select Commission on Western Hemisphere Immigration,183

Senegalese immigrants,63. See also African immigrants

sexual preference, and immigration

before 1965 amendments,250–258

and Adams v. Howerton,263–265

and Boutilier v. Immigration and Naturalization Service,259–261, 263

and Defense of Marriage Act,248–249, 269–270

definition of homosexual in Act of 1965,250

and definition of psychopathic personality,256

and DSM-1,251, 252

and DSM-II,262–267

and Fleuti v. Rosenberg,257–258

and Hill v. Immigration and Naturalization Service (1983),265–266

and Immigration Act of 1917,250–251

and Immigration Act of 1952 Act,253–258

and Immigration Act of 1965,251–253, 258–261

and Immigration Act of 1990,250

and Immigration Amendments, 1990,267–268

and invalidation of state sodomy laws,261

and Public Health Service (PHS),257, 260, 261

cases on opposing opinions on certificate requirement,265–267

Class A certificate,253, 261, 262, 265, 266, 267

and Quiroz v. Neelly,255–257

and In re Labady (1971),262–263

and In re Matter of Longstaff (1983),266–267

and US v. Flores-Rodriguez,254–255

Shain, Yossi,331

“show your papers” law (SB 1070, AZ),165

Sierra Leone immigrants, as percentage of all Black African immigrants,63. See also African immigrants

Smith, Lamar,226

Smith, William French,149

Somali Foundation,102, 103

Somali refugees,98–107

adjustment challenges,101–107

absence of male role model,101–102

age-related,104

employment,104–105

gender roles,105–106

integration,106

interethnic conflict,106

Kansas City, Missouri, community,102–103

naturalization,106–107

relationship with African Americans,106

cultural identity of,63

Islamic traditions/law of,103

in Minnesota,98–99

and naturalization,106–107, 112, 113t2.10

negative receptivity toward,101–102

overview of

1994–2012,70t2.6

1997,66t2.2

2000,67t2.3

2006,68t2.4

2012,82, 69t2.5

post-1990,65

reasons to migrate,99–100

refugee status as entry,82–83

remittances,107

resettlement states,84

secondary migration of,84, 85–86

in Tennessee,108

types of employment engaged in,101 See also African immigrants; African refugees

Somalia

civil war in,99–100

gender roles in,105

South African immigrants, 1960–1969,64 See also African immigrants

South America, and pre-1965 immigration policy,18

South Asian refugees

admissions during Obama administration,191

visas, 1994 and 2013,65 See also Asian immigrants

South Carolina, and immigration enforcement,164

South Korea, and National Origins Quota System,3. See also Asian immigrants

Southern European immigrants

and backlogs/wait lists,44

and Emergency Quota Act of 1921,202–203

and Immigration Act of 1924,203

and National Origins Quota Act,215

Southern Poverty Law Center,280

Southwest Border Security Initiative (2009),329

“Soviet and other” program,185

Soviet refugees, numbers admitted after Act of 1980,191

Soviet Union, effect of collapse on Ethiopia,90

Soviet Union, former, refugees from

and admissions ceilings of Refugee Act of 1980,82

admissions during Obama administration,191–192

visas, 1994 and 2013,65

Spota, Thomas J.,280

spouse, definition of,264

stepchildren, and family unification,228

stepwise migration,289, 290

stereotypes, negative of Africans in media,79

“stigma of parole,”180, 183, 185

Sudan, civil war in,108

Sudanese refugees,107–111

adjustment challenges,108–111

desire to return to homeland,110

educational attainment,109, 110

employment,109–110

English language ability,109, 110

gender roles,110–111

sub-culture of the streets,109

admissions, 1994–2012,70t2.6

cultural identity of,63

“lost boys,”108, 109

post-1990,65

refugee status as entry,82–83

secondary migration patterns, 85–86

in Tennessee,107–108, 109–110

yearly quotas,107 See also African immigrants

Sullivan, Anthony,263–265

Syrian refugees, admissions during Obama administration,191

“tamale lady,”160

Tanzanian immigrants

in Kansas,112

students returning home/remaining in U.S.,71 See also African immigrants

Teitelbaum, Michael,41–42

temporary worker programs, goals of,292–293. See also Filipino immigrants; Mexican temporary guest worker programs

Tennessee

Liberian immigrants in,112

as Sudanese refugee secondary location,85

terrorist attacks on U.S. (9/11)

effect on guest worker program,289–290

effect on Somalis in U.S.,104

Texas

African refugee resettlement, 2000–2004,84, 85t2.8

African refugee resettlement, 2010–2012,84, 86t2.9

African-born foreign population in,62

and immigration enforcement,164

as majority minority state,2, 13

Mexican immigrants in, 1910–1990,325t10.7

Nigerian immigrants in,112

political influence of MMAs on border security

in border community,338–340

in non-border community,340–342

as resettlement location for refugees from Ethiopia and Somalia,84

as Sudanese refugee secondary migration location,85

Sudanese refugees in,108

“Texas Can Do Better Campaign,”341

“Texas Residents United for a Stronger Texas” (T.R.U.S.T.) law enforcement summit,341–342

Theodore, Nik,276

Thomas, Brinley,40

transnational households

and benefits of immigrant labor to U.S. economy,236

Philippine domestic worker and family, example,232–233

proposals to improve immigration laws for,246–247

unintended consequences of immigration law on,235–242

increase in population of overlooked second generation,237–238

prolonged family separation,239–240, 241–242

and visa preference system of Act of 1965,238–242

backlogs,240

minor eligibility,242

pro-production/anti-reproduction effects,237–238, 242

and visa preference system of Act of 1990,241 See also transnational households case studies

transnational households case studies,242–246

children left in Philippines

and education,245, 303

emotional insecurities of,243

feelings of abandonment by,244–245

and open communication with migrant mother,243–244

repressed feelings of,244

and surrogate parents,245, 246

interviewee overview,233–234

transnational parent role,246

transnationalism, defining,77

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848),126, 317

Truman, Harry

criticism of quota systems,117–118

on natural origin restrictions,176

on undocumented workers,299

vetoes McCarran-Walter Act,176

T.R.U.S.T. (“Texas Residents United for a Stronger Texas”) law enforcement summit,341–342

Tunney, John,54

287 (g) program,329, 334–335

Uganda

students returning home/remaining in U.S.,71

Sudanese refugees in,107 See also African immigrants

U.N. High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)

Dadaab Refugee Camp, Kenya,105

and Fair Share Act,177–178, 181

Kakuma Refugee Camp, Kenya,109

and Migration and Refugee Assistance Act,175

and parole powers of Attorney General,174–175

and Sudanese refugees,107

United Nations Refugee Convention of 1951,175

United States Agency for International Development (USAID),87

U.S. News & World Report,34–35

US v. Windsor (2013),248–249, 270

Vietnamese refugees

and admissions ceilings of Refugee Act of 1980,82

and family unification,224

funding for settlement of,185

historical connection to U.S.,192

parolees,184

permanent status granted to,185 See also Asian immigrants

Virginia, African-born population in,62

visas

C-1B (seaman transit) visa,282–283

J-1 Visa Exchange Visitor Program,282–283

L visa,366

multiple-entry visitor’s visas,288–289

W visa, 310–311See also Diversity Visa Program; H visas; non-quota visas

Voting Rights Act (1965),1–2, 4, 11–12, 199, 303

W visa, 310–311

Walinsky, Adam,28, 53

Walter, Francis,174, 176

Ward, Kevin,276

Washington Post,36–37

West African immigrants,72–82

in Baltimore/D.C. area

democratization of family structure,78–79

educational attainment,77

employment,77

informal ties with ethnic group members,79

sub-ethnicity as organizing mechanism,75

transnational identity,77–78

economic mobility, distinctions between pre-/post-1990 arrivals,81–82

family issues,78–79

ethnic membership,79

size,78

structure,78–79

generally,74–77

influences on decision of temporary/permanent residence in U.S.,75, 76

major languages of,75

and racism/discrimination,76

sub-ethnicity as organizing role among immigrants,75

Ghanaians(see Ghanaian immigrants)

minority status,79–81

and informal ties with ethnic group members,79

and stereotyping,79

and threat of assimilation,79

and views on African Americans,80–81

and transnationalism,77–78

Western Hemisphere ceiling

and Asian immigration,46

effect on immediate relatives of citizens,20

effect on immigration from Mexico,124–125, 126, 129–136, 140–149

effect on Mexican worker migration,303–304, 305–306, 319

effect on MMA population,315–316

Kennedy, Robert F. on,132

legislative history on,131–132, 133–134, 135

overview of,20, 205

Wherry, Kenneth,252

Wirtz, W. Willard,28, 40, 300, 305

yilunnta (shame),94–95

Yoruba ethnic identity,75

Zambia, students returning home/remaining in U.S.,71. See also African immigrants

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