This chapter examines the trajectories of liberal reformers who assumed ministerial and advisory roles in post-1991, newly independent Russia. While systemic liberals such as Anatoly Chubais participated in government and negotiated with political and industrial elites, informal liberals and defectors from the establishment instead aligned themselves with the democratic opposition. These critics denounced the compromises made by systemic liberals, arguing that such concessions undermined genuine reform. Despite their vocal opposition, however, the democratic liberals failed to mobilise broad public support for their agenda. The chapter highlights figures such as Chubais and his opponent Grigory Yavlinsky, illustrating the contentious debates over Russia’s transformation in the 1990s.

Emotions and motivation are tied intimately together. Some motivations are based in emotions: fear, anger, and disgust. In other cases, though not forming their bases, emotion strongly interact with motivation; for example, disgust can strongly interact with sexual and feeding motivations. The chapter asks – what are the general properties of emotion and what do all emotions have in common? Emotions serve functionally coherent roles in behaviour, conscious experience, cognition, and the organization of the body’s physiology. The chapter draws a distinction between emotion, affect, and mood. It discusses specific action tendencies and Fredrickson’s broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. The chapter places central importance upon affective neuroscience. It reviews the evidence for seven basic affective systems as postulated by Jaak Panksepp: seeking, fear, rage, lust, care, panic/grief, and play. Links are described between these basic emotional systems and high-level cognition.

This chapter locates business in the economic thinking of the Single Market Program, which transformed regional economic, commercial, competition, industrial, and social policies and remade the relationship between firms and European governance. It examines the wide-ranging approaches of European officials to enterprise as they made collective Community agreements and designed policies for the internal market. Cabinet documents and speeches from regional policymakers in the European Commission shed light on the tensions between promoting the regional economic activity of firms on the one hand and increasingly regulating the market and its actors to protect consumers, workers, and the environment on the other. Ultimately, it argues, the Commission saw Community-wide business activity as the key to achieving the market and its wider economic and social objectives. By supporting cross-border mergers, acquisitions, investment, partnerships, and the development of regional supply and value chains, regional policymakers aimed to reassert the power and influence of a united Europe in the global economy.

An introduction of the four classical models: the voter model, the contact process, stochastic Ising models, and the exclusion process, complemented by some variations on the classical models such as the two-stage contact process or biased and rebellious voter models, as well as some other models such as systems of branching, coalescing, and annihilating random walks and an example of a kinetically constrained model. Some well-known major results are mentioned together with many open problems and topics that are from the mathematical side and still poorly understood, such as the critical exponents associated with continuous phase transition and (in the final section) periodic behavior.

This chapter introduces key concepts and methods in Bayesian statistical modelling. The posterior predictive distribution captures both epistemic uncertainty in model parameters and aleatory uncertainty in future outcomes. A Bayesian p-value gives the probability that a statistic computed from data output by a given model will be more extreme than the value of the same statistic computed from observed data. Bayesian p-values close to 0 or 1 suggest the model may be inadequate. Markov chain Monte Carlo is a general-purpose tool for sampling from complex, unnormalised distributions. It produces dependent samples, so the effective sample size is usually smaller than the number of iterations. Informative priors are useful when data leave large uncertainties in parameter values. Empirical Bayes combines information across related datasets by estimating a distribution over parameters using frequentist methods. Hierarchical modelling provides a unified Bayesian framework for handling multiple related datasets, capturing group structure via a hierarchical graph.

What is the employment law at international organizations? The answer – international administrative law – implements treaty-based employment at all international organizations, including the United Nations, International Labour Organization and the World Bank. It governs an encounter between the status of the international civil service, administrative authority at international organizations and the jurisprudence of international administrative tribunals. For the first time, the universal legal basis of international administrative law is concisely and clearly introduced, tracking the employee lifecycle, from selection, through remuneration, performance management and integrity to ending service. Drawing on the judgments of multiple administrative tribunals, a clear and useable interpretative framework of interconnected legal principles and legal duties is established. Intended for all staff at international organizations, Member State representatives, legal practitioners and scholars, this book serves as the basis for a shared understanding of international administrative law, equal to the enormity of the endeavours entrusted to the international civil service.

This chapter begins by introducing selection – the appointment, promotion and reassignment of international officials – as an administrative decision exercising discretionary authority, that is inherent to securing the highest standards of efficiency, competence, and integrity necessitated by the treaty-basis of international organizations. Second, the legal principles of selection are identified, namely: (1) Absent abuse of discretion, deference is due selecting managers; (2) Vacancy announcements must be adhered to, but may be revoked; and (3) Selection defects must be manifest, to be contestable. Third, two attendant legal duties of selection are considered, as follows: (1) Selection must be competency-based; and (2) All candidates are entitled to consideration, but not selection. Fourth, non-competitive selection – through direct selection and reassignment – is examined. Fifth, the classification of positions that underpins the objectivity of selection is considered. Sixth, and in conclusion, the employment law of selection at international organizations is restated.