We have introduced a compact infrastructure for exploration and experimentation, but all at the level of individual gates. Higher levels of abstraction are needed to scale to larger programs. The chapter discusses several quantum programming languages, including their specific tooling, such as hierarchical program representations or entanglement analysis. General challenges for compilation are discussed as well as compiler optimization techniques.

This chapter deals with the risks faced by workers and trade unions when they engage in industrial action which falls beyond lawful boundaries. For the trade union, the risk is that the action will be restrained by an injunction, while it remains open to an employer to bring an action for damages, though this is rarely done. For the workers participating in the action, there is the risk of dismissal and other sanctions imposed by the employer. The chapter also considers the role of ACAS in dispute resolution, and assesses the extent to which British law is consistent with international legal obligations.

The lack of uniformity sets up Chapter 5, which focuses on the places that were developing along the main course of the Amazon and the lower parts of its tributaries. Most of these settlements were missions, and by the early eighteenth century they had taken on board a dual identity of being connected to the hinterland and to the colonial centre of Belém. This chapter seeks to show the riverine areas were not emptied, as many scholars have wrongly assumed. A more nuanced historical understanding of the ethnic profiles between missions and the hinterlands is revealed, where the core elements of each place include ethnic composition, its location (chosen or imposed), economic contribution to the colonial economy, military and missionary presence, and relationship to hinterland. We thus have the three spaces emerging by the mid eighteenth century – the Amerindian complexes in the hinterland, the colonial sphere centred on Belém, and the riverine settlements which formed their own assemblies.

This chapter explores fascist urban imaginary – the ways in which European fascists responded to, and sought to reorder, the modern city – and how these visions informed projects in Italy, Germany and Spain. Drawing on Social Darwinist and social hygienic discourses, fascists regarded cities antagonistically, as epicentres of cosmopolitanism, degenerate modernism, racial corruption and sterility. The city, like the nation as whole, was a space to be conquered, purged and regenerated. Yet at the same time, they also embraced the urban environment as a showcase for national greatness, a site of political ritual and a vehicle for the totalitarian transformation of society.

This tension shaped the policies of fascist regimes, especially as directed towards the capitals of Rome, Berlin and Madrid. Through demolition, excavation and construction, they used urban space to invoke past golden ages, attempted to leave an enduring imprint on the built environment, and formulated utopian plans for cities of the future. The chapter also considers the afterlives of fascist urban interventions and their significance for contemporary memory politics.

Volume II charts European urbanism between 700 and 1850, the millennium during which Europe became the world’s most urbanised region. Featuring thirty-six chapters from leading scholars working on all the major linguistic areas of Europe, the volume offers a state-of-the-art survey that explores and explains this transformation, how similar or different such processes were across Europe, and how far it is possible to discern traits that characterise European urbanism in this period. The first half of the volume offers overviews on the urban history of Mediterranean Europe, Atlantic and North Sea Europe, Central and Eastern Europe, and European urbanisms around the world. The second half explores major themes, from the conceptualisation of cities and their material fabric to continuities and changes in the social, political, economic, religious and cultural histories of cities and towns.

The personal impact of Nicholas I anticipated the papal turn of the eleventh century, but the papal court lacked the administrative and cultural capacity to institutionalize his vision.

What other issue has brought together environmentalists, consumer protection advocates, free marketeers, labor unions, antitrust organizations, and civil rights groups? Chapter 7 explains how that all came about in the direct sales movement. But while this “strange bedfellows” public interest group coalition should have appealed to both political parties, translating it into tangible political support has been much harder. Nothing has been more central to this challenge than the eccentric and increasingly divisive person of Elon Musk, whose budding bromance with Donald Trump may again shift the political story of direct sales in unpredictable ways in coming years.

When does one genre become another? More precisely: When does the pressure that the descriptor “African” exerts on a form become sufficient for it to become another form in the global literary marketplace? This chapter underlines the role of genre theory in regulating the African continent’s literary field by scrutinizing how recent Afrofuturist fictions have intervened in critical debates about literary worlds and their genre-related meanings. The chapter interweaves discussions of three distinct strands of global theoretical thought: (1) the contestation (across decades) between the theorist Darko Suvin and the scholar/novelist China Miéville, on the definitions of science fiction and fantasy; (2) an outline of how a reconsecration of Amos Tutuola’s The Palm-Wine Drinkard worked in tandem with the writings of Wole Soyinka and Harry Garuba to reset the terms of that debate; and (3) an extended reading of how iconic twenty-first-century novels continue to “reprogram” the debate about the genres of African writing.