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18962 results in Cambridge Histories

Page 924 of 949

  • Chapter XV - France and England in North America, 1689–1713

  • Edited by J. S. Bromley
  • Book:
    The New Cambridge Modern History
    Published online:
    28 March 2008
    Print publication:
    02 July 1970, pp 480-508

  • Summary

    British colonial policy in the months immediately following the landing of William of Orange was determined less by a change of objectives than by circumstances outside the control of London. The Lords of Trade, a Privy Council committee which had contributed since 1675 more constructive thought towards the political organization of the empire than either Charles II or James II, remained in being. But the loss of vigour occasioned by James's interference was never fully recovered. The king who had helped initially to create a favourable atmosphere for imperial centralization unwittingly did more than any other person to destroy it for ever. In addition, his flight thrust upon the Privy Council the grave task of ensuring that the accession of William and Mary did not precipitate a more radical revolution in the colonies. The speedy onset of war added to the distractions of government. Thus England was unfavourably placed to bargain with her colonies, let alone to impose her will. In particular, the imperial unity which war made imperative would be meaningless if Old and New England pursued sharply diverging paths.

    For New England the Glorious Revolution provided the opportunity to overthrow a detested régime: with the imprisonment of General Governor Andros and Edward Randolph the short-lived Dominion of New England collapsed, and men of perceptible imperial sentiment associated with it were discredited. There were revolutionary disturbances also in New York and in Maryland. Protestant hysteria was a feature common to them all, but is not a sufficient explanation of them in itself.

  • 7 - THE OLD TESTAMENT TEXT

  • from III - THE OLD TESTAMENT
  • Edited by P. R. Ackroyd, C. F. Evans
  • Book:
    The Cambridge History of the Bible
    Published online:
    28 March 2008
    Print publication:
    01 April 1970, pp 159-199

  • Summary

    This chapter examines the first stages in the history of the transmission of the Old Testament text over a period of approximately 500 years, starting with 300 BC. The Old Testament books were translated into other Semitic languages, Aramaic and Syriac and also into non-Semitic languages, Greek, and subsequently Latin. The demand for a translation of the Hebrew scriptures into Aramaic probably arose during the Babylonian Exile or immediately after the return of the exiles to Palestine in the Persian period. Aramaic being the lingua franca of the time, it was adopted by many Jews in their intercourse with the non-Jewish world. The biblical manuscripts from Qumran have added a new dimension to the criticism of the biblical text and to the study of its history, both in the original Hebrew and in the earliest ancient versions, especially in Greek.

  • 5 - THE OLD TESTAMENT IN THE MAKING

  • from III - THE OLD TESTAMENT
  • Edited by P. R. Ackroyd, C. F. Evans
  • Book:
    The Cambridge History of the Bible
    Published online:
    28 March 2008
    Print publication:
    01 April 1970, pp 67-113

  • Summary

    The Old Testament is a collection of religious writings which, whatever their individual origins, are in their final form directed to the maintenance of the life of a community which thought of itself as being in a special sense the people of God. A great deal of attention has been paid in recent years to form critical analysis of Old Testament material. This was applied especially to the psalms, the types of which were traced by Hermann Gunkel and further developed; analysis of psalms outside Israel revealed the same patterns of construction. This chapter considers a narrative which appears twice in the Old Testament, in 2 Sam. 24 and 1 Chron. 21. One variety of Old Testament literature is provided by the prophetic books, containing an immense wealth of material of many different kinds. From the point of view of content, no completely sharp division can be made between the prophetic literature and other parts of the Old Testament.

  • 1 - THE BIBLICAL LANGUAGES

  • from I - LANGUAGE AND SCRIPT
  • Edited by P. R. Ackroyd, C. F. Evans
  • Book:
    The Cambridge History of the Bible
    Published online:
    28 March 2008
    Print publication:
    01 April 1970, pp 1-11

  • Summary

    Hebrew and Aramaic are two of the main representatives of the Semitic family of languages, named after Shem, the reputed ancestor of the Semitic peoples. Ancient Ethiopic first appears in epigraphic materials of the first Christian centuries and in the Aksum inscriptions of the fourth century AD. It is the language of an extensive Ethiopian Christian literature. The modern Semitic languages of Ethiopia are represented by Tigrina, Tigre, Amharic, Harari and Gurage. Classical Hebrew is the language of the Old Testament scriptures. The Lachish letters of the sixth century BC inscriptions, like the Gezer Calendar, the Siloam inscriptions have all added substantially to the knowledge of the ancient Hebrew language. The New Testament is written in a form of biblical Greek, the language of the Greek Old Testament and related writings, which are itself a deposit of the widely diffused Hellenistic language, usually designated the Koine form of the Greek language in the post-classical or Hellenistic era.

  • 2 - THE BIBLICAL SCRIPTS

  • from I - LANGUAGE AND SCRIPT
  • Edited by P. R. Ackroyd, C. F. Evans
  • Book:
    The Cambridge History of the Bible
    Published online:
    28 March 2008
    Print publication:
    01 April 1970, pp 11-29

  • Summary

    This chapter explores the Biblical Scripts: Early Hebrew, Square Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Syriac, Coptic and Ethiopic. The Early Hebrew and the Phoenician alphabets were two branches from the Canaanite stem, which was a continuation of the North- Semitic. The Samaria ostraca, of the ninth or eighth century BC are the earliest documents written in Early Hebrew current or running hand. The Greek alphabet occupies in many ways a unique place in the history of writing. The numerous Greek inscriptions are of paramount importance for history; they form the subject of Greek epigraphy. The city of Antioch of Syria was one of the most important centres of early Christianity and it was there that 'the disciples were for the first time called Christians'. Coptic literature consists for the most part of translations from Greek, and includes versions of the Bible, apocrypha of the Old Testament and of the New Testament, the Martyrdoms and the Lives of the Saints, and so on.

  • 12 - THE INTERPRETATION OF THE OLD TESTAMENT IN THE NEW

  • from IV - THE NEW TESTAMENT
  • Edited by P. R. Ackroyd, C. F. Evans
  • Book:
    The Cambridge History of the Bible
    Published online:
    28 March 2008
    Print publication:
    01 April 1970, pp 377-411

  • Summary

    A very large majority of New Testament books quote the Old Testament explicitly, and often make it clear that the authors regarded the Old Testament as an authoritative body of literature which claimed the attention and obedience of Christians. The interpretation by Greek thinkers of poetry and ancient myth forms a useful but distant background to the use of the Old Testament by New Testament writers. To the Greek philosopher, the existence of earlier literature was no more than incidental; at most it provided a useful confirmation of truths of which he was already persuaded on other grounds. Judaism understood itself as a current practical exegesis of its Bible. Most of the writers of the New Testament were Jews, and all were children of their own age. The wording of the Old Testament is taken over and woven into narrative or argument.

  • 16 - JEROME AS BIBLICAL SCHOLAR

  • from V - THE BIBLE IN THE EARLY CHURCH
  • Edited by P. R. Ackroyd, C. F. Evans
  • Book:
    The Cambridge History of the Bible
    Published online:
    28 March 2008
    Print publication:
    01 April 1970, pp 510-541

  • Summary

    Jerome was the greatest biblical scholar of the early Church. Jerome's own first 'little work' was a commentary on Obadiah. From Constantinople Paulinus and Jerome went on to Rome, together with Epiphanius, bishop of Salamis in Cyprus, to take part in the council held by Damasus in 382. Jerome lectured on scripture daily and wrote continuously. Didymus' treatise On the Holy Spirit was translated, as were also more of Origen's biblical homilies. Jerome started on a revision of the Old Latin Old Testament and became increasingly concerned to secure the best Septuagint texts obtainable on which to base it. The Hebraica veritas influenced Jerome in one direction namely, in his view of the extent of the Old Testament Canon. Jerome's major contribution as a biblical commentator was the series of commentaries on the Old Testament prophets who provided him with a practically unworked field.

  • 18 - THE PLACE OF THE BIBLE IN THE LITURGY

  • from V - THE BIBLE IN THE EARLY CHURCH
  • Edited by P. R. Ackroyd, C. F. Evans
  • Book:
    The Cambridge History of the Bible
    Published online:
    28 March 2008
    Print publication:
    01 April 1970, pp 563-586

  • Summary

    The study of liturgical origins enables to understand better the significance of festivals and the meaning of liturgical formulas and ceremonies. The earliest Christians were of Jewish origin, and were accustomed to the services held both in the Temple and in the synagogue. The main purpose of the synagogue was the reading and interpretation of the scriptures of the Old Testament, the Bible of the Jews, as well as prayer. The evidence of the New Testament indicates that the Old Testament scriptures were regularly read in the synagogue. In the sub-apostolic period, three useful texts are the Epistle of Clement of Rome to the Corinthians, Pliny's Letter to Trajan and the Didacke. The Old Testament lesson was sometimes called 'the prophet' or 'the prophecy', as in Apostolic Constitution. There are clear indications in the New Testament that the Christians recognised the value and importance of definite hours of prayer.

  • 9 - THE NEW TESTAMENT IN THE MAKING

  • from IV - THE NEW TESTAMENT
  • Edited by P. R. Ackroyd, C. F. Evans
  • Book:
    The Cambridge History of the Bible
    Published online:
    28 March 2008
    Print publication:
    01 April 1970, pp 232-284

  • Summary

    Christianity is unique among the world religions in being born with a Bible in its cradle. The use of the Old Testament continued to play a great part in Christian writing as it had done previously in Christian speech. The existence of an authoritative Bible would have had the negative effect of inhibiting any thought of producing fresh books, and there is more than a suggestion in the early Church of a reluctance to write. With the exception of the Pauline letters the New Testament writings were relatively slow in appearing, and a high proportion of them are anonymous. The Old Testament supplied the basis of early Christian thought, it did not supply the models for its writing, and in the matter of literary forms the New Testament is remarkably independent of the Old. The New Testament was not, like the Old Testament, revealed the limited amount of material available for canonisation.

  • 15 - THEODORE OF MOPSUESTIA AS REPRESENTATIVE OF THE ANTIOCHENE SCHOOL

  • from V - THE BIBLE IN THE EARLY CHURCH
  • Edited by P. R. Ackroyd, C. F. Evans
  • Book:
    The Cambridge History of the Bible
    Published online:
    28 March 2008
    Print publication:
    01 April 1970, pp 489-510

  • Summary

    Fourth-century Antioch was an outstanding centre of biblical scholarship and of ecclesiastical confusion. The leading figures of the Antiochene school of biblical scholarship in the fourth century were staunch upholders of the faith of Nicaea. Diodore was the leading figure of the school in the middle of the century and bishop of Tarsus from 378. Theodore of Mopsuestia draws a distinction between the office of the exegete and that of the preacher in the introduction to his Commentary on John. For Theodore, the primary author of all scripture was the Holy Spirit. His work of commentary on the Psalms and on the minor prophets led him to pay more attention than the majority of early writers to the precise nature of inspiration. His judgement on New Testament commentaries is based wholly on the suitability of the sense of the disputed reading. Theodore's commentaries on the Old Testament show him as a scholar capable of acute historical observation.

  • 11 - THE NEW TESTAMENT TEXT

  • from IV - THE NEW TESTAMENT
  • Edited by P. R. Ackroyd, C. F. Evans
  • Book:
    The Cambridge History of the Bible
    Published online:
    28 March 2008
    Print publication:
    01 April 1970, pp 308-377

  • Summary

    In the field of New Testament textual criticism, a great change of approach and method has taken place in the course of the present century. The method owed much to the work of the great nineteenth century philologist Karl Lachmann, who worked in the fields of the manuscript tradition of Latin classical texts, the New Testament and medieval German poetry. One of the greatest exponents of the study of documents a generation after Westcott and Hort was Kirsopp Lake. He wrote some words which express the ideal for the textual critic working on this aspect of the field. The majority of manuscripts of the Greek New Testament are of Byzantine production, and most of these post-date the Iconoclastic controversy and the invention of minuscule. The Byzantine text has many readings which appear conflate, and many evident rationalisations of cruces.

  • 14 - ORIGEN AS BIBLICAL SCHOLAR

  • from V - THE BIBLE IN THE EARLY CHURCH
  • Edited by P. R. Ackroyd, C. F. Evans
  • Book:
    The Cambridge History of the Bible
    Published online:
    28 March 2008
    Print publication:
    01 April 1970, pp 454-489

  • Summary

    Origen was the kind of person, regrettably rare in Christian history, who appears to have been capable of entering into genuine dialogue with Jews. The obvious common ground for such debate was the Old Testament. He did not undertake any major study of the New Testament text of the kind which he carried out in the case of the Old Testament. The ancient Latin version of the passage quoted from the Commentary on Matthew makes him say that he would not dare to do such a thing; but the remark does not occur in the Greek text and cannot therefore be accepted with any confidence as genuine. The Holy Spirit was the real author of scripture. This fact guaranteed neither the stylistic quality nor the absolute historicity of the scriptural record. Modern scholarship has tended to draw a firm line of distinction between typological and allegorical interpretations of the Old Testament.

  • 6 - CANONICAL AND NON-CANONICAL

  • from III - THE OLD TESTAMENT
  • Edited by P. R. Ackroyd, C. F. Evans
  • Book:
    The Cambridge History of the Bible
    Published online:
    28 March 2008
    Print publication:
    01 April 1970, pp 113-159

  • Summary

    This chapter considers the terms that are used to describe the canonical writings and the definition of canonisation and canonicity within the relevant period. It discusses the evidence for acts of canonisation by which the several sections, and the collection as a whole, came to be recognised as canonical. The chapter describes the relation between canonical and non-canonical literature. A famous passage in Josephus provides both a descriptive terminology and a definition of the nature of the Canon as it was understood in his time. The discovery of the book of the Law in the Temple at Jerusalem in the eighteenth year of the reign of Josiah led to a decisive development in the emergence of the Canon. The Greek-speaking Christian Church took over the Septuagint, which contained other works and in which, moreover, some of the canonical books included additional sections.

Page 924 of 949