This chapter introduces the EU AI Act and examines how it will apply to artificial intelligence (AI) used by judicial authorities. The chapter gives an overview of key regulatory concepts of the EU AI Act and discusses its risk classification, particularly which AI systems used by judicial authorities would fall under the category of high- risk AI systems and which other provisions could be relevant for the use of AI by judicial authorities. The chapter investigates practical examples of how the provisions are expected to apply in practice and which obligations follow for judicial authorities, including which exemptions could apply. The author also provides context and rationale for the relevant provisions and their evolution during the legislative process.

This chapter discusses the integration of AI into the judicial systems of Lithuania and Poland. It provides a historical context, outlining the progress of both countries in digitalisation and AI readiness. The chapter notes relevant political and planning documents and then focuses on the current state of AI in non-judicial and judicial activities within the courts of Lithuania and Poland. The authors present technological solutions used for case assignment, case handling, and document processing, anonymisation of judgments, voice-to-text transcription, and tools developed for automating press release preparation. The chapter then explores the potential for AI in judicial decision-making, considering the prospects for partial and full judicial automation and identifying scenarios where AI could play a more significant role without compromising the quality of judicial outcomes. It highlights the Polish pilot project ‘Digital Judge’s Assistant’, and discusses the stringent regulations under the EU AI Act 2024 and the GDPR that govern the use of AI in judicial processes.

Chapter 17 explores the implication of the failure to establish a proper legal sovereign in the Mandates under Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations. The tension was never resolved between the Mandatory power exercising the attributes of sovereignty and actually possessing it, notably on the all-important issue of maintaining ‘public order’. Repression as interpreted politically through the Permanent Mandates Commission (PMC) thus shaped Mandatory rule. Three examples show dialogue between the PMC and the Mandatory powers articulated sovereignty as a system of legal practice. The repression of the Bondelswarts rebellion of 1922 and the Great Syrian Revolt of 1925–27 muddled the distinction between Class C and Class A Mandates. The repression of the Arab revolt in Palestine of 1936–38 exemplified legalist tensions within the Mandate system that had been there all along. Neither the PMC nor the Mandatory power (Britain) could either construct sovereignty over a unitary Palestine or partition it. As Europe veered towards war in 1939 and as the League itself started to disintegrate, ‘public order’ in Palestine came to exist for its own sake, disconnected from any resolution of the political stalemate.

This chapter examines the adoption of artificial intelligence (AI) tools and digital solutions within the Estonian justice system, highlighting its pioneering approach to digital transformation following independence in 1991. The initial section explores the factors behind Estonia’s rapid digital transition, emphasising the centralisation of support services and the development of a unified public-sector digital infrastructure that has significantly influenced court operations. The Estonian judiciary employs integrated information and communications technology systems that utilise shared data storage, enabling efficient digital and remote court proceedings. These advantages were particularly evident during the Covid-19 pandemic. While AI and machine-driven decisions are restricted to support functions, excluding substantive judicial roles (no ‘robo-judges’), efforts are ongoing to enhance data-driven practices and automation in court proceedings. However, a key legal challenge lies in aligning digital court processes with the constitutional mandate for public justice.

This scholarly exploration examines the Islamic perspective on environmental stewardship, climate change, and ethical resource management through the lens of Shariah (Islamic Sacred Law). Grounded in the principles of Tawhid (divine unity), the article argues that Muslims have a fundamental religious obligation to protect the Earth and its resources as trustees or "Khalifa" (guardians). The text analyzes how Islamic ethical principles, particularly the Maqasid Shariah (higher objectives of sacred law), directly relate to contemporary environmental challenges, especially global warming and fossil fuel consumption.

The author emphasizes that the Islamic worldview inherently promotes ecological consciousness, viewing humans as stewards responsible for just and compassionate management of natural resources. By referencing Quranic injunctions and Prophetic traditions, the article advocates for fossil fuel divestment, renewable energy adoption, and sustainable development. It presents a compelling case that environmental protection is not merely a scientific or political imperative, but a profound spiritual and moral responsibility deeply rooted in Islamic teachings of mercy, justice, and interconnectedness.

In the absence of a targeted legal framework, the Courts and Tribunals Judiciary’s ‘Guidance for Judicial Office Holders’ remain the primary source of regulatory guidance determining how artificial intelligence (AI) ought to be appropriately used by the judiciary in the United Kingdom. This chapter critically reflects upon the content and effectiveness of these guidelines, ultimately concluding that more extensive – and legally binding – regulatory action is needed to ensure accurate and accountable judicial decision-making in the era of AI. The chapter first surveys general attitudes towards AI within the UK judiciary, before engaging directly with the technical foundations of AI and examples of its usage in administrative and judicial decision-making in the UK. It concludes with an analysis of the guidelines, following discussion of several key legal and constitutional issues that may arise where AI is deployed in judicial settings. Throughout this contribution, we caution that the regular use of AI to make decisions does not simply change the process of discrete procedures, but rather, challenge existing structures within the legal and political system at a broader level.

In a world grappling with pressing environmental challenges, the intersection of Islamic epistemologies and sustainable development models offers a unique perspective. This chapter book delves into Islamic perspectives on environmental ethics and sustainability, exploring the theological foundations, ethical principles, and practical implications of stewardship and trust in Islam. Drawing upon Quranic teachings and scholarly insights, it examines humanity’s role as stewards of the Earth, emphasizing responsible resource management, moderation, and justice. Rooted in concepts of Khilafah (stewardship) and Amanah (trust), Islamic environmental ethics highlight the ethical obligation to ensure sustainable resource use and protect the environment for future generations. Additionally, the concepts of moderation and justice, known as "Al-Wasatiyyah," offer guidance for achieving balance, equity, and harmony in all aspects of life, including environmental conservation. Through case studies and examples, this chapter book demonstrates how Islamic principles can inform environmental decision-making processes and contribute to holistic, sustainable development efforts. By integrating spiritual dimensions into environmental conservation practices, it advocates for a more comprehensive approach to addressing contemporary environmental challenges, fostering a harmonious relationship between humans and the natural world.

Chapter 14 examines how the rise of American philanthropic foundations – particularly the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (CEIP) – shaped international law during the League of Nations era. Although the United States government remained formally outside most League institutions, American influence was felt as private organizations brought their considerable resources to bear on the development of the social sciences, including the discipline of international law. The chapter explores how the CEIP’s legal philanthropy sustained international law as a transnational professional practice linking League officials, judges, academics, and practitioners. Drawing on archival research from the League of Nations and the CEIP, as well as a dataset of roughly 25,000 individuals affiliated with League bodies and related NGOs, the chapter addresses several key questions: What strategy guided the Endowment’s funding decisions? How did this strategy interact with broader geopolitical dynamics, particularly the ambivalent US–League relationship? And how did recipients leverage foundation support to advance their own agendas? The chapter traces the CEIP’s project of replacing a militarized global regime with a rules-based international order administered by trained legal professionals but also offers insights into the structural impact of philanthropic funding on the sociological makeup of the legal profession in the League era.

This chapter focuses on the use of AI at sentencing. First, we note that AI can be used in different ways in the task of sentencing offenders. Second, the chapter considers when a ‘robot’ judge can be said to perform sufficiently well to replace a human judge. We argue that a plausible criterion for the assessment of the performance of a robot judge is contingent on penal ethical considerations and since these have not been sufficiently developed, we do not yet possess an applicable criterion for a comparison robot and human judges. Third, this conclusion also has implications for less radical applications of AI (such as the use of algorithms as sentencing advisory systems), for assessing competing types of AI models, and for carrying out post hoc evaluations of the performance of sentencing algorithms once they have been implemented.

Over the last two decades, new historical scholarship has greatly improved our knowledge and understanding of the history of the League of Nations beyond the old dichotomy of failure or success. Meanwhile, legal scholars are showing an increasing interest in the history of international law. Yet, a systematic account of the important role of international law in the League of Nations is lacking. Surveying the main state of the art, this introduction outlines how the Handbook aims move beyond these two separate strands. Moreover, it elaborates on its understanding of international law as the new ‘meta-language of global governance’, as well as on the methodological underpinnings the various chapters before briefly outlining the content of the Handbook.

This project is a close study of the legal and political aspects of management of water resources in semi-arid environments. The British in India laid the foundations of the modern irrigation system in what is now India and Pakistan. In semi-arid environments, the bulk of agriculture relies on irrigation, as it did in Spain under the Moors. We can observe a stark divide in the use of laws and institutions to manage natural resources in different societies, at different times and places. Some societies have managed in a way that achieved prosperity and long-term sustainability. The Moors of Spain created a vibrant civilization in the Middle Ages that lasted nearly eight hundred years. One of the reasons for the dynamism of their civilization was their judicious management of water resources on which foundation they created a thriving agricultural economy that produced the economic surplus for their vibrant urban culture. Of particular interest is what I regard as the essence of Moorish water management: its management of scarcity by borrowing principles from the great cradles of civilization, Mesopotamia and the Nile, which built abundance in harsh environments, along with principles of use, reuse and justice as conceived of in the Quran.

Chapter 11 argues that the absence of the Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ) in the Manchurian dispute case at the League of Nations in 1931–33 had a significant impact on the development of the international judicial system for interstate conflict resolution. It argues that the dispute contributed to the ‘decoupling’ of the judiciary process from the League’s collective security mechanism which it had tried to build in the 1920s and of which the PCIJ was an integral part. The Japanese foreign policy elite’s shifting understanding of international law and the League, this chapter argues, was critical in underpinning this development. These elites had understood international law largely as a set of inter-imperial agreements and saw the League and the PCIJ as operating according to this norm. This understanding remained persistent at the beginning of the Manchurian dispute, and led them to argue that the case should be submitted to the PCIJ. In the course of the Manchurian case at the League, however, they recognized that the dominant norm was shifting, which prompted them eventually to opt for extra-League, bilateral inter-imperial relations.

Genetically modified food (GMF) is part of our realities as consumers worldwide. The techniques and possibilities involved do require an Islamic legal (fiqhi) study as to assess GMF with regard to its consumption, production and related research. The paper focuses on placing the study of GMF within a holistic context, under consideration of the societal background and rationale it has been developed under. It investigates into the possibility of transferring fiqhi devices such as istihalah (chemical transformation), istihlak (extreme dilution) and others to GMF combining genetic material from permissible and non-permissible sources. It raises a number of deliberations and concerns with regard to the usage of the maqasidi scheme and discusses the permissibility of GMF under the aspects of changing creation or harnessing nature.

This chapter focuses on the judicial use of AI in German courts. In recent years, the work of German courts has changed significantly due to increasing digitalisation in particular through the introduction of electronic court files and electronic communication with the courts. AI is being used in a number of different applications and is being tested in several pilot projects. After an overview of the court organisation and competences, the most important projects and possible applications of AI in German courts are described. The opportunities and challenges of AI for the German justice system and its impact on the work of German courts are analysed. Applications include automatic speech recognition, data extraction, anonymisation of court decisions, and support for judicial decision-making. These use-cases are then evaluated in the light of German constitutional law and the EU’s AI Act 2024.

Chapter 13 explores the interactions between the League of Nations and two transnational legal societies that had been torch-bearers of legal internationalism since their establishment in 1873: the Institute of International Law (IIL) and the International Law Association (ILA). Comparing how the IIL and ILA engaged with the League institutions and with specific projects such as the codification of international law, it demonstrates how the League’s limited geographical scope ensured that these ‘universal’ societies continued to consider themselves as crucial and sometimes even superior platforms for organizing legal internationalism. In spite of these reservations vis-à-vis the League, IIL and ILA discussions and reports fed the League with authoritative opinions on what was to be understood as international law, while the societies in return integrated the League into their scholarly understandings and their practical organization.

The principles of Islamic environmentalism are foundational to just practices in the global South and Muslim majority nations. Inevitably, as our common ground is transformed and protected, so too will our human interactions and political dynamics. Muslim-majority nations stand to face the most severe effects of climate change, but those who believe it and combat it are a minority. To face this crisis and protect people and the planet, we need to reconcile our Islamic customs and norms in an effort to shift our exploitative association with nature into an authentic and fair relationship. Muslims have a unique position in the ongoing environmental crisis. Principles set forth in the Quran and Ahadith have outlined foundational beliefs and instructions to guide our actions. The role of khilafa (stewardship) of this earth is a responsibility bestowed upon all Muslims. Moreover, this is compounded with the concept of being held accountable for our actions, and that the land itself will bear witness to our actions. The sanctity of life, Hurmah, is especially powerful.

This chapter examines concerns that AI might replace human judges, potentially compromising the right to a fair trial and other fundamental rule of law values. Rather than dismissing these concerns, we present a balanced analysis of the opportunities and challenges posed by AI-enhanced judicial decision-making. We explore this issue through the lens of Article 6 ECHR, examining potential applications, including case management, evidence collection, and legal interpretation. We emphasise the critical need for transparency and robust safeguards to protect due process rights. Equally significant are questions surrounding perceptions of justice and the maintenance of public trust and legitimacy in judicial proceedings. Even sophisticated AI systems require continuous oversight and human interpretive expertise to ensure that litigants and the broader public perceive the technology and judicial role as efficient, fair, and reliable. The chapter concludes by developing a typology of AI in judiciary – from judicial clerks to bureaucratic judges to R. Dworkin’s idealised ‘Judge Hercules’ – examining how AI can enhance traditional judicial capabilities and improve overall judicial performance.