Abstract

The multimedia principle states that people learn better from words and pictures than from words alone. It is supported by empirically derived theory suggesting that words and images evoke different conceptual processes and that perception and learning are active, constructive processes. It is further supported by research studies that have found superior retention and transfer of learning from words augmented by pictures compared to words presented alone and superior transfer when narration is accompanied by animation compared to narration or animation presented alone. Research has also found that the effectiveness of combining imagery with text varies with the content to be learned, the conditions under which performance is measured, and individual differences in spatial ability, prior knowledge, and general learning ability. Cognitive theory derived from these findings posits interactions between three stages of memory – sensory, working, and long term – that are connected by cooperative, additive channels used to process information arriving from different sensory modalities.

The Multimedia Principle

It is commonly assumed that adding pictures to words, rather than presenting text alone, makes it easier for people to understand and learn. The proverb that a picture is worth a thousand words attests to the popularity and acceptance of this assumption. The assumption leads to what may be called the multimedia principle. This principle, as stated by Mayer (2001), is that people learn better from words and pictures than from words alone, or, more specifically, that people learn more or more deeply when appropriate pictures are added to text (Mayer, in press).

Abstract

Based on sociocultural and social cognitive theory, computer support for collaborative learning (CSCL) has emerged as a new research and development subdiscipline of computer-mediated communication. The emphasis of CSCL is on supporting collaborative learning activities in online multimedia environments. In this chapter, we review research on the nature of the technology used, how the learning groups are comprised (e.g., group size, learner characteristics), the learning outcome engaged by the task, the role of the tutor, the effects of community-building activities, the nature of the learning or communication assessment, and the effects of scaffolds or discussion constraints on learning. Based on this research, we make a variety of recommendations for the design and implementation of learning environments.

Introduction to the Collaboration Principle

In the past decade, the study of learning has been influenced increasingly by constructivism and social theories. Not only have the epistemological and ontological assumptions about the nature of learning changed as a result of constructivist influences, but the nature of instructional and learning activities has changed dramatically. At the risk of oversimplification, the most obvious effect of this influence has been a shift from emphasis on instructional communication systems to an emphasis on practice-based, collaborative learning systems. The goal of instructional systems, informed by objectivist assumptions, was to effectively design messages to support the efficient transmission of knowledge about the world.

Abstract

We show that age-related cognitive changes necessitate considerations for the design of multimedia learning environments. These considerations mainly relate to the cognitive aging principle, which states that limited working memory may be effectively expanded by using more than one sensory modality, and some instructional materials with dual-mode presentation may be more efficient than equivalent single-modality formats, especially for older adults. The principle is based on the modality effect and multimedia effect that have been researched extensively in the context of Sweller's (1999) cognitive load theory (CLT) and Mayer's (2001) cognitive theory of multimedia learning (CTML). The research on cognitive aging in relation to multimedia processing is reviewed to explore current understanding of age-related design principles for multimedia learning environments. The potential implications of age-related cognitive changes for the design of multimedia learning environments are highlighted and complemented with important future directions in multimedia learning. The role of CLT and CTML as versatile frameworks for the design of multimedia learning environments for the elderly is discussed.

The Cognitive Aging Principle in the Design of Multimedia Learning

Demographic and technological developments will lead to a growing proportion of independent, active, and eager-to-learn elderly adults who in their everyday lives are more and more confronted with multimedia applications, such as learning environments. Generally, these learning environments consist of many relevant and irrelevant information elements, which are presented together at a fast pace and through different sensory modalities.

Abstract

This chapter describes five commonly held principles about multimedia learning that are not supported by research and suggests alternative generalizations that are more firmly based on existing studies. The questionable beliefs include the expectations that multimedia instruction: (1) yields more learning than live instruction or older media; (2) is more motivating than other instructional delivery options; (3) provides animated pedagogical agents that aid learning; (4) accommodates different learning styles and so maximizes learning for more students; and (5) facilitates student-managed constructivist and discovery approaches that are beneficial to learning.

Introduction

Multimedia instruction is one of the current examples of a new area of instructional research and practice that has generated a considerable amount of excitement. Like other new areas, its early advocates begin with a set of assumptions about the learning and access problems it will solve and the opportunities it affords (see, e.g., a report by the American Society for Training and Development, 2001). The goal of this chapter is to examine the early expectations about multimedia benefits that seem so intuitively correct that advocates may not have carefully examined research evidence for them. If these implicit assumptions are incorrect we may unintentionally be using them as the basis for designing multimedia instruction that does not support learning or enhance motivation.

Abstract

Hypermedia proponents suggest that its ability to make information available in a multitude of formats, provide individual control, engage the learner, and cater to various learning styles and needs makes it the harbinger of a new learning revolution. However, despite nearly two decades of research on hypermedia in education, researchers have not yet solved some of the basic issues raised by this technology. In this chapter, we review empirical studies performed since Dillon and Gabbard's (1998) landmark review in an attempt to analyze and draw conclusions from this diverse and extensive literature.

Introduction

Since Vannevar Bush's ground-breaking article As We May Think (Bush, 1945), the idea of using technology to link the world's information resources in new ways has been heralded by some as a revolutionary opportunity to design new instructional media. The term hypermedia is commonly used to refer to this type of information resources and is based on the term hypertext, coined by Ted Nelson around 1965 to refer to “nonsequential” or “nonlinear” text where authors and readers were free to explore and to link information in ways that made personal sense for them (Nelson, 1965). In general usage, the terms are often used interchangeably but to be strictly accurate, hypermedia consists of more than linked texts; it includes other forms of media as well, such as images, video, and sound.